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LESSONS  IN  BOTANY 

AND 

VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY, 


ILLUSTRATED  BY  OYER  360  WOOD  ENGRAVINGS,  FROM  ORIGINAL 
DRAWINGS,  BY  ISAAC  SPRAGUE. 


GLOSSARY, 


OR 


DICTIONARY  OF  BOTANICAL  TERMS. 


By  ASA  GRAY, 

FISHER  PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  IN  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


NEW  YORK: 

I VIS  ON,  PHINNEY,  & CO.,  48  & 50  WALKER  STREET. 
CHICAGO:  S.  C.  GRIGGS  & CO.,  39  & 41  LAKE  STREET. 

PHILADELPHIA  : SOWER,  BARNES,  & CO.,  AND  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  & CO. 

BOSTON  : BROWN,  TAGGARD,  & CHASE.  CINCINNATI  : MOORE,  WILSTACH,  KEYS,  & CO. 
SAVANNAH : J.  M.  COOPER  & CO.  NEW  ORLEANS : BLOOMFIELD,  STEEL,  & CO. 

ST.  LOUIS : KEITH  & WOODS.  DETROIT  t F.  RAYMOND  & CO. 

1860. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1857,  by 
GEORGE  P.  PUTNAM  & CO., 
in  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


University  Press,  Cambridge : 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  Welch,  Bigelow,  & Co. 


\S  To w \ 4' 


PREFACE. 


This  book  is  intended  for  the  use  of  beginners,  and  for  classes  in  the 
common  and  higher  schools,  — in  which  the  elements  of  Botany,  one  of 
the  most  generally  interesting  of  the  Natural  Sciences,  surely  ought  to  be 
taught,  and  to  be  taught  correctly,  as  far  as  the  instruction  proceeds. 
While  these  Lessons  are  made  as  plain  and  simple  as  they  well  can  be, 
all  the  subjects  treated  of  have  been  carried  far  enough  to  make  the  book 
a genuine  Grammar  of  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology,  and  a sufficient 
introduction  to  those  works  in  which  the  plants  of  a country  — especially 
of  our  own  — are  described. 

Accordingly,  as  respects  the  principles  of  Botany  (including  Vege- 
table Physiology),  this  work  is  complete  in  itself,  as  a school-book 
for  younger  classes,  and  even  for  the  students  of  our  higher  seminaries. 
For  it  comprises  a pretty  full  account  of  the  structure,  organs,  growth, 
and  reproduction  of  plants,  and  of  their  important  uses  in  the  scheme  of 
creation, — subjects  which  certainly  ought  to  be  as  generally  understood 
by  all  educated  people  as  the  elements  of  Natural  Philosophy  or  Astron- 
omy are ; and  which  are  quite  as  easy  to  be  learned. 

The  book  is  also  intended  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  author’s 
Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States  (or  to  any  similar 
work  describing  the  plants  of  other  districts),  and  to  be  to  it  what  a 
grammar  and  a dictionary  are  to  a classical  author.  It  consequently  con- 
tains many  terms  and  details  which  there  is  no  necessity  for  young  stu- 
dents perfectly  to  understand  in  the  first  instance,  and  still  less  to  commit 
to  memory,  but  which  they  will  need  to  refer  to  as  occasions  arise,  when 
they  come  to  analyze  flowers,  and  ascertain  the  names  of  our  wild  plants. 

To  make  the  book  complete  in  this  respect,  a full  Glossary , or  Diction- 
ary of  Terms  used  in  describing  Plants , is  added  to  the  volume.  This  con- 
tains very  many  words  which  are  not  used  in  the  Manual  of  Botany ; 
but  as  they  occur  in  common  botanical  works,  it  was  thought  best  to  in- 
troduce and  explain  them.  All  the  words  in  the  Glossary  which  seemed 
to  require  it  are  accented. 


253035 


iv 


PREFACE. 


It  is  by  no  means  indispensable  for  students  to  go  through  the  volume 
before  commencing  with  the  analysis  of  plants.  When  the  proper  season 
for  botanizing  arrives,  and  when  the  first  twelve  Lessons  have  been  gone 
over,  they  may  take  up  Lesson  XXVIII.  and  the  following  ones,  and  pro- 
ceed to  study  the  various  wild  plants  they  find  in  blossom,  in  the  manner 
illustrated  in  Lesson  XXX.,  &c.,  — referring  to  the  Glossary,  and  thence 
to  the  pages  of  the  Lessons,  as  directed,  for  explanations  of  the  various 
distinctions  and  terms  they  meet  with.  Their  first  essays  will  necessarily 
be  rather  tedious,  if  not  difficult;  but  each  successful  attempt  smooths 
the  way  for  the  next,  and  soon  these  technical  terms  and  distinctions 
will  become  nearly  as  familiar  as  those  of  ordinary  language. 

Students  who,  having  mastered  this  elementary  work,  wish  to  extend 
their  acquaintance  with  Vegetable  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  and  to  con- 
sider higher  questions  about  the  structure  and  classification  of  plants,  will 
be  prepared  to  take  up  the  author’s  Botanical  Text-Book , or  other  more 
detailed  treatises. 

No  care  and  expense  have  been  spared  upon  the  illustrations  of  this 
volume;  which,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  all  original.  They 
were  drawn  from  nature  by  Mr.  Sprague,  the  most  accurate  of  living 
botanical  artists,  and  have  been  as  freely  introduced  as  the  size  to  which 
it  was  needful  to  restrict  the  volume  would  warrant. 

To  append  a set  of  questions  to  the  foot  of  each  page,  although  not  un- 
usual in  school-books,  seems  like  a reflection  upon  the  competency  or  the 
faithfulness  of  teachers,  who  surely  ought  to  have  mastered  the  lesson  be- 
fore they  undertake  to  teach  it;  nor  ought  facilities  to  be  afforded  for 
teaching,  any  more  than  learning,  lessons  by  rote.  A full  analysis  of  the 
contents  of  the  Lessons,  however,  is  very  convenient  and  advantageous. 
Such  an  Analysis  is  here  given,  in  place  of  the  ordinary  table  of  con- 
tents. This  will  direct  the  teacher  and  the  learner  at  once  to  the  leading 
ideas  and  important  points  of  each  Lesson,  and  serve  as  a basis  to  ground 
proper  questions  on,  if  such  should  be  needed. 

ASA  GRAY. 


Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
January  1,  1857. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS.* 


LESSON  I. — Botany  as  a Branch  or  Natural  History.  . . p.  1. 

1.  Natural  History,  its  subjects.  2.  The  Inorganic  or  Mineral  Kingdom, 
what  it  is  : why  called  Inorganic.  3.  The  Organic  world,  or  the  world  of  Or- 
ganized beings,  why  so  called,  and  what  its  peculiarities.  4.  What  kingdoms 
it  comprises.  5,  6.  Differences  between  plants  and  animals.  7.  The  use  of 
plants  : how  vegetables  are  nourished  ; and  how  animals. 

8.  Botany,  how  defined.  9.  Physiology,  and  Physiological  Botany,  what 
they  relate  to.  10.  Systematic  Botany,  what  it  relates  to  : a Flora,  what  it  is. 
11.  Geographical  Botany,  Fossil  Botany,  &c.,  what  they  relate  to. 

LESSON  II.  — The  Growth  of  the  Plant  from  the  Seed.  . p.  4. 

12.  The  Course  of  Vegetation : general  questions  proposed.  13.  Plants 
formed  on  one  general  plan.  14.  The  Germinating  Plantlet  15.  exists  in 
miniature  in  the  seed:  16.  The  Embryo;  its  parts:  17,  18.  how  it  develops. 
19.  Opposite  growth  of  Boot  and  Stem  : 20.  its  object  or  results  : 21,  22.  the 
different  way  each  grows. 

LESSON  III.  Growth  of  the  Plant  from  the  Seed  ; continued,  p.  9. 

23.  Kecapitulation : Ascending  and  Descending  Axis.  24,  25.  The  Germi- 
nating Plantlet,  how  nourished.  26.  Deposit  of  food  in  the  embryo,  illustrated 
in  the  Squash,  &c. : 27.  in  the  Almond,  Apple-seed,  Beech,  &c.  : 28.  in  the 

Bean:  29.  in  the  Pea,  Oak,  and  Buckeye  : peculiarity  of  these  last.  30,  31. 
Deposit  of  food  outside  of  the  embryo  : Albumen  of  the  seed  : various  shapes 
of  embryo.  32,  33.  Kinds  of  embryo  as  to  the  number  of  Cotyledons : di- 
cotyledonous : monocotyledonous  : polycotyledonous.  34,  35.  Plan  of  vegeta- 
tion. 36.  Simple-stemmed  vegetation  illustrated. 

LESSON  IV.  The  Growth  of  Plants  from  Buds  and  Branches,  p.  20. 

37,  38.  Branching  : difference  in  this  respect  between  roots  and  stems.  39. 
Buds,  what  they  are,  and  where  situated  : 40.  how  they  grow,  and  what  they 

become.  41.  Plants  as  to  size  and  duration:  herb,  annual,  biennial,  perennial : 
shrub  : tree.  42.  Terminal  Bud.  43.  Axillary  Buds.  44.  Scaly  Buds.  45. 
Naked  Buds.  46.  Vigor  of  vegetation  from  buds  illustrated.  47  - 49.  Plan 
and  arrangement  of  Branches  : opposite  : alternate.  50.  Symmetry  of  Branches, 


The  numbers  in  the  analysis  refer  to  the  paragraphs. 

a* 


VI 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


what  it  depends  on:  51.  how  it  becomes  incomplete:  51-59.  how  varied. 

53.  Definite  growth.  54.  Indefinite  growth.  55.  Deliquescent  or  dissolving 
stems,  how  formed.  56.  Excurrent  stems  of  spire-shaped  trees,  how  produced. 
57.  Latent  Buds.  58.  Adventitious  Buds.  59.  Accessory  or  supernumerary 
Buds.  60.  Sorts  of  Buds  recapitulated  and  defined. 

LESSON  V.  Morphology  op  Roots p.  28. 

61  - 64.  Morphology;  what  the  term  means,  and  how  applied  in  Botany.  65. 
Primary  Root,  simple ; and,  66.  multiple.  67.  Rootlets ; how  roots  absorb ; 
time  for  transplantation,  &c.  68.  Great  amount  of  surface  which  a plant 

spreads  out,  in  the  air  and  in  the  soil ; reduced  in  winter,  increased  in  spring. 
69.  Absorbing  surface  of  roots  increased  by  the  root-hairs.  70.  Fibrous  roots 
for  absorption.  71.  Thickened  or  fleshy  roots  as  storehouse  of  food.  72,  73. 
Their  principal  forms.  74.  Biennial  roots ; their  economy.  75.  Perennial 
thickened  roots.  76.  Potatoes,  &c.  are  not  roots.  77.  Secondary  Roots,  their 
economy.  78.  Sometimes  striking  in  open  air,  when  they  are,  79.  Aerial  Roots  ; 
illustrated  in  Indian  Corn,  Mangrove,  Screw  Pine,  Banyan,  &c.  80.  Aerial 

Rootlets  of  Ivy.  81.  Epiphytes  or  Air-Plants,  illustrated.  82.  Parasitic  Plants, 
illustrated  by  the  Mistletoe,  Dodder,  &c. 

LESSON  VI.  Morphology  op  Stems  and  Branches.  . . . p.  36. 

83  - 85.  Eorms  of  stems  and  branches  above  ground.  86.  Their  direction  or 
habit  of  growth.  87.  Culm,  Caudex,  &c.  88.  Suckers  : propagation  of  plants 

by  division.  89.  Stolons : propagation  by  layering  or  laying.  90.  Offsets. 
91.  Runners.  92.  Tendrils;  how  plants  climb  by  them  : their  disk-like  tips  in 
the  Virginia  Creeper.  93.  Tendrils  are  sometimes  forms  of  leaves.  94.  Spines 
or  Thoms  ; their  nature  : Prickles.  95.  Strange  forms  of  stems,  96.  Subter- 
ranean stems  and  branches.  97.  The  Rootstock  or  Rhizoma,  why  stem  and 
not  root.  98.  Why  running  rootstocks  are  so  troublesome,  and  so  hard  to  de- 
stroy. 99-101.  Thickened  rootstocks,  as  depositories  of  food.  102.  Their 
life  and  growth.  103.  The  Tuber.  104.  Economy  of  the  Potato-plant.  105. 
Gradations  of  tubers  into,  106.  Corms  or  solid  bulbs  : the  nature  and  economy 
of  these,  as  in  Crocus.  107.  Gradation  of  these  into,  108.  the  Bulb  : nature  of 
bulbs.  109,110.  Their  economy.  111.  Their  two  principal  sorts.  112.  Bulb- 
lets.  113.  How  the  foregoing  sorts  of  stems  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  mor- 
phology. 114.  They  are  imitated  in  some  plants  aboveground.  115.  Consoli- 
dated forms  of  vegetation,  illustrated  by  Cactuses,  &c.  116.  Their  economy 

and  adaptation  to  dry  regions. 

LESSON  VII.  Morphology  op  Leaves p.  49. 

117.  Remarkable  states  of  leaves  already  noticed.  118,  119.  Foliage  the 
natural  form  of  leaves : others  are  special  forms,  or  transformations ; why  so 
called.  120.  Leaves  as  depositories  of  food,  especially  the  seed-leaves ; and,  121. 
As  Bulb-scales.  122.  Leaves  as  Bud-scales.  123.  As  Spines.  124.  As  Ten- 
drils. 125.  As  Pitchers.  126.  As  Fly-traps.  127-  129.  The  same  leaf  serving 
various  purposes. 


ANALYSIS  OP  THE  LESSONS. 


vii 

LESSON  YIII.  Morphology  of  Leaves  as  Foliage.  . . . p.  54. 

130.  Foliage  the  natural  state  of  leaves.  131.  Leaves  a contrivance  for  in- 
creasing surface : the  vast  surface  of  a tree  in  leaf.  132,  133.  The  parts  of  a 
leaf.  134.  The  blade.  135.  Its  pulp  or  soft  part  and  its  framework.  136. 
The  latter  is  wood,  and  forms  the  ribs  or  veins  and  veinlets.  137.  Division  and 
use  of  these.  138.  Venation,  or  mode  of  veining.  139.  Its  two  kinds.  140. 
Netted-veined  or  reticulated.  141.  Parallel-veined  or  nerved.  142.  The  so- 
called  veins  and  nerves  essentially  the  same  thing;  the  latter  not  like  the 
nerves  of  animals.  143.  How  the  sort  of  veining  of  leaves  answers  to  the  num- 
ber of  cotyledons  and  the  kind  of  plant.  144.  Two  kinds  of  parallel-veined  leaves. 
145,  146.  Two  kinds  of  netted-veined  leaves.  147.  Relation  of  the  veining  to 
the  shape  of  the  leaf.  148  - 151.  Forms  of  leaves  illustrated,  as  to  general  out- 
line. 152.  As  to  the  base.  153.  As  to  the  apex. 


LESSON  IX.  Morphology  of  Leaves  as  Foliage;  continued,  p.  61. 

154,  155.  Leaves  either  simple  or  compound.  156-162.  Simple  leaves  il- 
lustrated as  to  particular  outline,  or  kind  and  degree  of  division.  163.  Com- 
pound leaves.  164.  Leaflets.  165.  Kinds  of  compound  leaves.  166,  167. 
The  pinnate,  and,  168.  the  palmate  or  digitate.  169.  As  to  number  of  leaflets, 
&c.  170.  Leaflets,  as  to  lobing,  &c.  171,  172.  Doubly  or  trebly  compound 

leaves  of  both  sorts.  173.  Peculiar  forms  of  leaves  explained,  such  as  : 174. 

Perfoliate:  175.  Equitant:  176.  Those  without  blade.  177.  Phyllodia,  or 

flattened  petioles.  178.  Stipules.  179.  Sheaths  of  Grasses ; Ligule. 

LESSON  X.  The  Arrangement  of  Leaves p.  71. 

181.  Phyllotaxy,  or  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem  : general  sorts  of  ar- 
rangement. 182.  Leaves  arise  only  one  from  the  same  place.  183.  Clustered 
or  fascicled  leaves  explained.  184.  Spiral  arrangement  of  alternate  leaves.  185. 
The  two-ranked  arrangement.  186.  The  three-ranked  arrangement.  187.  The 
five-ranked  arrangement.  188.  The  fractions  by  which  these  are  expressed. 
189.  The  eight-ranked  and  the  thirteen-ranked  arrangements.  190.  The  series 
of  these  fractions,  and  their  relations.  191.  Opposite  and  whorled  leaves. 
192.  Symmetry,  of  leaves,  &c.  fixed  by  mathematical  rule.  193.  Vernation,  or 
arrangement  of  leaves  in  the  bud.  194.  The  principal  modes. 

LESSON  XI.  The  Arrangement  of  Flowers  on  the  Stem, 

or  Inflorescence p.  76. 

195.  Passage  from  the  Organs  of  Vegetation  to  those  of  Fructification  or  Re- 
production. 196.  Inflorescence  : the  arrangement  of  flowers  depends  on  that 
of  the  leaves.  197.  They  are  from  either  terminal  or  axillary  buds.  198.  In- 
determinate Inflorescence.  199.  Its  sorts  of  flower-clusters.  200.  Flower- 
stalks,  viz.  peduncles  and  pedicels,  bracts  and  .bractlets,  &c.  201.  Raceme. 
202.  Its  gradation  into  (203)  a Corymb,  and  that  (204)  into  (205)  an  Umbel. 
206.  Centripetal  order  of  development.  207.  The  Spike.  208.  The  Head. 


viii 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


209.  Spadix.  210.  Catkin  or  Ament.  211,  212.  Compound  inflorescence  of 
the  preceding  kinds.  213.  Panicle.  214.  Thyrsus.  215.  Determinate  In- 

florescence explained.  216,  217.  Cyme:  centrifugal  order  of  development. 
218.  Fascicle.  219.  Glomerule.  221.  Analysis  of  flower-clusters.  222.  Com... 
bination  of  the  two  kinds  of  inflorescence  in  the  same  plant. 

LESSON  XII.  The  Flower  : its  Parts  or  Organs p.  84. 

223.  The  Flower.  224.  Its  nature  and  use.  225.  Its  organs.  226.  The 
Floral  Envelopes  or  leaves  of  the  flower.  Calyx  and  Corolla,  together  called 
(227)  Perianth.  228.  Petals,  Sepals.  229.  Neutral  and  “double”  flowers, 
those  destitute  of,  230.  The  Essential  Organs : Stamens  and  Pistils.  231,  232. 
The  parts  of  the  flower  in  their  succession.  233.  The  Stamen  : its  parts.  234. 
The  Pistil : its  parts. 

LESSON  XIII.  The  Plan  op  the  Flower p.  88. 

235.  Flowers  all  constructed  upon  the  same  plan.  236.  Plan  in  vegetation 
referred  to.  237-239.  Typical  or  pattern  flowers  illustrated,  those  at  once 
perfect,  complete,  regular,  and  symmetrical.  241.  Imperfect  or  separated  flowers. 
242.  Incomplete  flowers.  243.  Symmetry  and  regularity.  244.  Irregular  flow- 
ers. 245.  Unsymmetrical  flowers.  246.  Numerical  plan  of  the  flower.  247. 
Alternation  of  the  successive  parts.  248.  Occasional  obliteration  of  certain  parts. 
249.  Abortive  organs.  250.  Multiplication  of  parts. 

LESSON  XIY.  Morphology  op  the  Flower p.  96. 

251.  Recapitulation  of  the  varied  forms  under  which  stems  and  leaves  appear. 
252.  These  may  be  called  metamorphoses.  253.  Flowers  are  altered  branches  ; 
how  shown.  254.  Their  position  the  same  as  that  occupied  by  buds.  255, 
256.  Leaves  of  the  blossom  are  really  leaves.  257.  Stamens  a different  modifi- 
cation of  the  same.  258.  Pistils  another  modification;  the  botanist’s  idea  of 
a pistil.  259.  The  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a flower  answers  to  that  of  the 
leaves  on  a branch. 

LESSON  XY.  Morphology  op  the  Calyx  and  Corolla.  . . p.  99. 

260.  The  leaves  of  the  blossom  viewed  as  to  the  various  shapes  they  assume ; 
as,  261.  by  growing  together.  262.  Union  or  cohesion  of  parts  of  the  same  sort, 
rendering  the  flower,  263.  Monopetalous  or  monosepalous ; various  shapes  de- 
fined and  named.  265.  The  tube,  and  the  border  or  limb.  266.  The  claw 
and  the  blade,  or  lamina  of  a separate  petal,  &c.  267.  When  the  parts  are 
distinct,  polysepalous,  and  polypetalous.  268.  Consolidation,  or  the  growing 
together  of  the  parts  of  different  sets.  269.  Insertion,  what  it  means,  and  what 
is  meant  by  the  terms  Free  and  Hypogynous.  270.  Perigynous  insertion.  271, 
272.  Coherent  or  adherent  calyx,  &c.  273.  Epigynous.  274.  Irregularity  of 
parts.  275.  Papilionaceous  flower,  and  its  parts.  276.  Labiate  or  bilabiate 
flowers.  277,  278.  Ligulate  flowers  : the  so-called  compound  flowers. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


IX 


LESSON  XYI.  Estivation,  or  the  Arrangement  of  tiie 

Calyx  and  Corolla  in  the  Bud.  . . . p.  108. 

279.  Estivation  or  Prsefloration  defined.  280.  Its  principal  inodes  illustrated, 
viz.  the  valvate,  induplicate,  reduplicate,  convolute  or  twisted,  and  imbricated. 
282,  283.  Also  the  open,  and  the  plaited  or  plicate,  and  its  modification,  the 
supervolute. 

LESSON  XVII:  Morphology  of  the  Stamens p.  111. 

284.  Stamens  considered  as  to,  285.  Their  insertion.  286.  Their  union  with 
each  other.  287,  288.  Their  number.  289.  Their  parts.  290.  The  Eilament. 
291.  The  Anther.  292,  293.  Its  attachment  to  the  filament.  294.  Its  structure. 
295.  Its  mode  of  opening,  &c.  296.  Its  morphology,  or  the  way  in  which  it  is 

supposed  to  be  constructed  out  of  a leaf ; its  use,  viz.  to  produce,  297.  Pollen. 
298.  Structure  of  pollen-grains.  299.  Some  of  their  forms. 


LESSON  XVIII.  Morphology  of  Pistils p.  116. 

300.  Pistils  as  to  position.  301.  As  to  number.  302.  Their  parts ; Ovary, 
style,  and  stigma.  303,  304.  Plan  of  a pistil,  whether  simple  or  compound. 
305,  306.  The  simple  pistil,  or  Carpel,  and  how  it  answers  to  a leaf.  307.  Its 
sutures.  308.  The  Placenta.  309.  The  Simple  Pistil,  one-celled,  310.  and  with 
one  style.  311,  312.  The  Compound  Pistil,  how  composed.  313.  With  two  or 
more  cells  : 314.  their  placentae  in  the  axis  : 315.  their  dissepiments  or  parti- 
tions. 316,  317.  One-celled  compound  pistils.  318.  With  a free  central  pla- 
centa. 319,  320.  With  parietal  placentae.  321.  Ovary  superior  or  inferior. 
322.  Open  or  Gymnospermous  pistil : Naked-seeded  plants.  323.  Ovules.  324. 
Their  structure.  325,  326.  Their  kinds  illustrated. 

LESSON  XIX.  Morphology  of  the  Receptacle p.  124. 

327.  The  Receptacle  or  Torus.  328-330.  Some  of  its  forms  illustrated. 
331.  The  Disk.  332.  Curious  form  of  the  receptacle  in  Nelumbium. 

LESSON  XX.  The  Eruit p.  126. 

333.  What  the  Fruit  consists  of.  334.  Fruits  which  are  not  such  in  a strict 
botanical  sense.  335.  Simple  Fruits.  336,  337.  The  Pericarp,  and  the  changes 
it  may  undergo.  338.  Kinds  of  simple  fruits.  339.  Fleshy  fruits.  340.  The 
Berry.  341.  The  Pepo  or  Ground-fruit.  342.  The  Pome  or  Apple-fruit.  343- 
345.  The  Drupe  or  Stone-fruit.  346.  Dry  fruits.  347.  The  Achenium  : nature 
of  the  Strawberry.  348.  Raspberry  and  Blackberry.  349.  Fruit  in  the  Com- 
posite Family : Pappus.  350.  The  Utricle.  351.  The  Caryopsis  or  Grain.  352. 
The  Nut : Cupule.  353.  The  Samara  or  Key-fruit.  354.  The  Capsule  or  Pod. 
355.  The  Follicle.  356.  The  Legume  and  Loment.  357.  The  true  Capsule. 
358, 359.  Dehiscence,  its  kinds.  361 . The  Silique.  362.  The  Silicle.  363.  The 
Pyxis.  364.  Multiple  or  Collective  Fruits.  365.  The  Strobile  or  Cone. 


X 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


LESSON  XXL  The  Seed p.  134. 

366.  The  Seed;  its  origin.  367.  Its  parts.  360,  369.  Its  coats.  370.  The 
Aril  or  Arillus.  371.  Names  applied  to  the  parts  of  the  seed.  372.  The  Ker- 
nel or  Nucleus.  373.  The  Albumen.  374,  375.  The  Embryo.  376.  The 
Radicle.  377.  The  Cotyledons  or  Seed-leaves  : the  monocotyledonous,  dicoty- 
ledonous, and  polycotyledonous  embryo.  378.  The  Plumule.  379.  The  circle 
of  vegetable  life  completed. 

LESSON  XXII.  How  Plants  grow p.  138. 

380,  381.  Growth,  what  it  is.  382.  For  the  first  formation  or  beginning  of 
a plant  dates  farther  back  than  to,  383.  the  embryo  in  the  ripe  seed,  which  is 
already  a plantlet.  384.  The  formation  and  the  growth  of  the  embryo  itself. 
385.  Action  of  the  pollen  on  the  stigma,  and  the  result.  386.  The  Embryonal 
Vesicle,  or  first  cell  of  the  embryo.  387.  Its  growth  and  development  into  the 
embryo.  388.  Growth  of  the  plantlet  from  the  seed.  389.  The  plant  built  up 
of  a vast  number  of  cells.  390.  Growth  consists  of  the  increase  in  size  of  cells, 
and  their  multiplication  in  number. 


LESSON  XXIII.  Vegetable  Fabric:  Cellular  Tissue.  . . p.  142. 

391,  392.  Organic  Structure  illustrated : Cells  the  units  or  elements  of  plants. 
393.  Cellular  Tissue.  394, 395, 39tf.  How  the  cells  are  put  together.  396.  Inter- 
cellular spaces,  air-passages.  398.  Size  of  cells.  399.  Rapidity  of  their  produc- 
tion. 400.  Their  walls  colorless;  the  colors  owing  to  their  contents.  401.  The 
walls  sometimes  thickened.  402.  Cells  are  closed  and  whole ; yet  sap  flows  from 
one  cell  to  another.  403.  Their  varied  shapes. 


LESSON  XXIV.  Vegetable  Fabric  : Wood p.  145. 

404.  All  plants  at  the  beginning  formed  of  cellular  tissue  only;  and  some 
never  have  anything  else  in  their  composition.  405.  Wood  soon  appears  in 
most  plants.  406.  Its  nature.  408.  Wood-cells  or  Woody  Fibre.  409.  Hard 
wood  and  soft  wood.  410.  Wood-cells  closed  and  whole ; yet  they  convey  sap. 
411.  They  communicate  through  thin  places : Pine-wood,  &c.  412.  Bast-cells 
or  fibres  of  the  bark.  413.  Ducts  or  Vessels.  414.  The  principal  kinds.  415. 
Milk-vessels,  Oil-receptacles,  &c. 


LESSON  XXV.  Anatomy  of  the  Root,  Stem,  and  Leaves,  p.  149. 

416.  The  materials  of  the  vegetable  fabric,  how  put  together.  417-419. 
Structure  and  action  of  the  rootlets.  420.  Root-hairs.  421.  Structure  of  the, 
stem.  422.  The  two  sorts  of  stem.  423.  The  Endogenous.  423.  The  Exo- 
genous : 425.  more  particularly  explained.  426.  Parts  of  the  wood  or  stem 
itself.  42,7.  Parts  of  the  bark.  428.  Growth  of  the  exogenous  stem  year  after 
year.  429.  Growth  of  the  bark,  and  what  becomes  of  the  older  parts.  431. 
Changes  in  the  wood;  Sap-wood.  432.  Heart-wood.  433.  This  no  longer  liv- 


I 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


Xl 


ing.  434.  What  the  living  parts  of  a tree  are ; their  annual  renewal.  435. 
Cambium-layer  or  zone  of  growth  in  the  stem ; connected  with,  436.  new  root- 
lets below,  and  new  shoots,  buds,  and  leaves  above.  437.  Structure  of  a leaf : 
its  two  parts,  the  woody  and  the  cellular,  or,  438.  the  pulp  ; this  contains  the  green 
matter,  or  Chlorophyll.  439,  440.  Arrangement  of  the  cells  of  green  pulp  in  the 
leaf,  and  structure  of  its  epidermis  or  skin.  441.  Upper  side  only  endures  the 
sunshine.  442.  Evaporation  or  exhalation  of  moisture  from  the  leaves.  443. 
Stomates  or  Breathing-pores,  their  structure  and  use.  444.  Their  numbers. 

LESSON  XXVI.  The  Plant  in  Action,  doing  the  Work 

of  Vegetation p.  157. 

446.  The  office  of  plants  to  produce  food  for  animals.  447.  Plants  feed 
upon  earth  and  air.  449.  Their  chemical  composition.  450.  Two  sorts  of 
material.  451,  452.  The  earthy  or  inorganic  constituents.  453.  The  organic 
constituents.  454.  These  form  the  Cellulose,  or  substance  of  vegetable  tissue ; 
composition  of  cellulose.  455.  The  plant’s  food,  from  which  this  is  made. 

456.  Water,  furnishing  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  458.  Carbonic  acid,  furnishing, 

457.  Carbon.  459.  The  air,  containing  oxygen  and  nitrogen;  and  also,  460. 
Carbonic  acid;  461.  which  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves,  462.  and  by  the  roots. 
463.  Water  and  carbonic  acid  the  general  food  of  plants.  464.  Assimilation 
the  proper  work  of  plants.  465.  Takes  place  in  green  parts  alone,  under  the 
light  of  the  sun.  466-468.  Liberates  oxygen  gas  and  produces  Cellulose  or 
plant-fabric.  469.  Or  else  Starch  ; its  nature  and  use.  470.  Or  Sugar;  its  na- 
ture, &c.  The  transformations  starch,  sugar,  &c.  undergo.  471.  Oils,  acids,  &c. 
The  formation  of  all  these  products  restores  oxygen  gas  to  the  air.  472.  There- 
fore plants  purify  the  air  for  animals.  473.  While  at  the  same  time  they  pro- 
duce all  the  food  and  fabric  of  animals.  The  latter  take  all  their  food  ready  made 
from  plants.  474.  And  decompose  starch,  sugar,  oil,  &c.,  giving  back  their  ma- 
terials to  the  air  again  as  the  food  of  the  plant ; at  the  same  time  producing  ani- 
mal heat.  475.  But  the  fabric  or  flesh  of  animals  (fibrine,  gelatine,  &c.)  contains 
nitrogen.  476.  This  is  derived  from  plants  in  the  form  of  Proteine.  Its  nature 
and  how  the  plant  forms  it.  477.  Earthy  matters  in  the  plant  form  the  earthy 
part  of  bones,  &c.  478.  Dependence  of  animals  upon  plants  ; showing  the  great 
object  for  which  plants  were  created. 

LESSON  XXVII.  Plant-Life p.  166. 

479.  Life ; manifested  by  its  effects ; viz.  its  power  of  transforming  matter : 
480.  And  by  motion.  481,  482.  Plants  execute  movements  as  well  as  animals. 
483.  Circulation  in  cells.  484.  Pree  movements  of  the  simplest  plants  in  their 
forming  state.  485.  Absorption  and  conveyance  of  the  sap.  486.  Its  rise  into 
the  leaves.  487.  Explained  by  a mechanical  law;  Endosmose.  488.  Set  in  ac- 
tion by  evaporation  from  the  leaves.  489.  These  movements  controlled  by  the 
plant,  which  directs  growth  and  shapes  the  fabric  by  an  inherent  power.  490. 
Special  movements  of  a more  conspicuous  sort.  491.  Such  as  seen  in  the  so- 
called  sleeping  and  waking  states  of  plants.  492.  Movements  from  irritation, 
and  striking  spontaneous  motions. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LESSONS. 


xii 

493.  Cryptogamous  or  Flowerless  Plants.  494.  What  they  comprise ; why 
so  called.  495.  To  be  studied  in  other  works. 

LESSON  XXVIII.  Species  and  Kinds p.  173. 

496.  Plants  viewed  as  to  their  relationships.  497.  Two  characteristics  of 
plants  and  animals  : they  form  themselves,  and,  498.  They  exist  as  Individu- 
als. The  chain  of  individuals  gives  rise  to  the  idea  of,  499,  500.  Species  : as- 
semblages of  individuals,  so  like  that  they  are  inferred  to  have  a common  an- 
cestry. 501.  Varieties  and  Paces.  502.  Tendency  of  the  progeny  to  inherit 
all  the  peculiarities  of  the  parent ; how  taken  advantage  of  in  developing  and 
fixing  races.  503.  Diversity  and  gradation  of  species  ; these  so  connected  as  to 
show  all  to  be  formed  on  one  plan,  all  works  of  one  hand,  or  realizations  of  the 
conceptions  of  one  mind.  504.  Kinds,  what  they  depend  upon.  505.  Genera. 
506.  Orders  or  Pamilies.  507.  Suborders  and  Tribes.  508.  Classes.  509.  The 
two  great  Series  or  grades  of  plants.  510.  The  way  the  various  divisions  in 
classification  are  ranked. 

LESSON  XXIX.  Botanical  Names  and  Characters.  . . . p.  178. 

511,  512.  Classification;  the  two  purposes  it  subserves.  513.  Names  : plan  of 
nomenclature.  514,  515.  Generic  names,  how  formed.  516.  Specific  names, 
how  formed.  517.  Names  of  Varieties.  518,  519.  Names  of  Orders,  Sub- 
orders, Tribes,  &c.  520,  521.  Characters. 

LESSONS  XXX. -XXXII.  How  to  study  Plants,  pp.  181,  187,  191. 

522  - 567.  Illustrated  by  several  examples,  showing  the  mode  of  analyzing  and 
ascertaining  the  name  of  an  unknown  plant,  and  its  place  in  the  system,  &c. 

LESSON  XXXIII.  Botanical  Systems p.  195. 

568-571.  Natural  System.  572,  573.  Artificial  Classification.  574.  Arti- 
ficial System  of  Linnaeus.  575.  Its  twenty-four  Classes,  enumerated  and  de- 
fined. 576.  Derivation  of  their  names.  577,  578.  Its  Orders. 

LESSON  XXXIV.  How  to  collect  Specimens  and  make 

an  Herbarium p-  199. 

579-582.  Directions  for  collecting  specimens.  583,  584.  Eor  drying  and 
preserving  specimens.  585,  586.  For  forming  an  Herbarium. 


GLOSSARY,  or  Dictionary  op  Botanical  Terms p.  203 


FIRST  LESSONS 


IN 


BOTANY  AND  VEGETABLE  PHYSIOLOGY. 


LESSON  I. 


/ 1 / 


tl;l 


BOTANY  AS  A BRANCH  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY!  ' 


1.  The  subjects  of  Natural  History  are,  the  earth  itself  and  the 
beings  that  live  upon  it. 

2.  The  Inorganic  World,  or  Mineral  Kingdom.  The  earth  itself,  with 
the  air  that  surrounds  it,  and  all  things  naturally  belonging  to  them 
which  are  destitute  of  life,  make  up  the  mineral  kingdom,  or  in- 
organic world.  These  are  called  inorganic , or  unorganized,  because 
they  are  not  composed  of  organs,  that  is,  of  parts  which  answer  to 
one  another,  and  make  up  a whole,  such  as  is  a horse,  a bird,  or  a 
plant.  They  were  formed,  but  they  did  not  grow,  nor  proceed  from 
previous  bodies  like  themselves,  nor  have  they  the  power  of  pro- 
ducing other  similar  bodies,  that  is,  of  reproducing  their  kind.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  various  living  things,  or  those  which  have  pos- 
sessed life,  compose 

3.  The  Organic  World,  — the  world  of  organized  beings.  These 
consist  of  organs ; of  parts  which  go  to  make  up  an  individual,  a 
being.  And  each  individual  owes  its  existence  to  a preceding  one 
like  itself,  that  is,  to  a parent.  It  was  not  merely  formed,  but 
produced.  At  first  small  and  imperfect,  it  grows  and  develops  by 
powers  of  its  own  ; it  attains  maturity,  becomes  old,  and  finally  dies. 
It  was  formed  of  inorganic  or  mineral  matter,  that  is,  of  earth  and 
air,  indeed  ; but  only  of  this  matter  under  the  influence  of  life  : 
and  after  life  departs,  sooner  or  later,  it  is  decomposed  into  earth 
and  air  again. 


1 


2 BOTANY,  WHAT  IT  RELATES  TO.  [LESSON  1. 

4.  The  organic  world  consists  of  two  kinds  of  beings ; namely, 
1.  Plants  or  Vegetables , which  make  up  what  is  called  the  Vegetable 
Kingdom  ; and,  2.  Animals , which  compose  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

5.  The  Differences  between  Plants  and  Animals  seem  at  first  sight  so 
obvious  and  so  great,  that  it  would  appear  more  natural  to  inquire 
how  they  resemble  rather  than  how  they  differ  from  each  other. 
What  likeness  does  the  cow  bear  to  the  grass  it  feeds  upon  ? The 
one  moves  freely  from  place  to  place,  in  obedience  to  its  own  will, 
as  its  wants  or  convenience  require : the  other  is  fixed  to  the  spot 
of  earth  where  it  grew,  manifests  no  will,  and  makes  no  movements 
that  are  Apparent  to  ordinary  observation.  The  one  takes  its  food 
into  an  internal  cavity  (the  stomach),  from  which  it  is  absorbed 
into  the  system : the  other  absorbs  its  food  directly  by  its  surface, 
by  its  roots,  leaves,  &c.  Both  possess  organs ; but  the  limbs  or 
members  of  the  animal  do  not  at  all  resemble  the  roots,  leaves, 
blossoms,  &c.  of  the  plant.  All  these  distinctions,  however,  gradu- 
ally disappear,  as  we  come  to  the  lower  kinds  of  plants  and  the  lower 
animals.  Many  animals  (such  as  barnacles,  coral-animals,  and 
polyps)  are  fixed  to  some  support  as  completely  as  the  plant  is  to 
the  soil ; while  many  plants  are  not  fixed,  and  some  move  from 
place  to  place  by  powers  of  their  own.  All  animals  move  some  of 
their  parts  freely ; yet  in  the  extent  and  rapidity  of  the  motion 
many  of  them  are  surpassed  by  the  common  Sensitive  Plant,  by 
the  Venus’s  Fly-trap,  and  by  some  other  vegetables ; while  whole 
tribes  of  aquatic  plants  are  so  freely  and  briskly  locomotive,  that 
they  have  until  lately  been  taken  for  animals.  It  is  among  these 
microscopic  tribes  that  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  most 
nearly  approach  each  other,  — so  nearly,  that  it  is  still  uncertain 
where  to  draw  the  line  between  them. 

6.  Since  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  animals  and 
plants  occurs  only,  or  mainly,  in  those  forms  which  from  their 
minuteness  are  beyond  ordinary  observation,  we  need  not  further 
concern  ourselves  with  the  question  here.  One,  and  probably  the 
most  absolute,  difference,  however,  ought  to  be  mentioned  at  the 
outset,  because  it  enables  us  to  see  what  plants  are  made  for.  It 
is  this : — 

7.  Vegetables  are  nourished  by  the  mineral  kingdom,  that  is,  by 
the  ground  and  the  air,  which  supply  all  they  need,  and  which  they 
are  adapted  to  live  upon  ; while  animals  are  entirely  nourished  by 
vegetables.  The  great  use  of  plants  therefore  is,  to  take  portions  of 


LESSON  1.] 


BOTANY,  WHAT  IT  RELATES  TO. 


3 


earth  and  air,  upon  which  animals  cannot  subsist  at  all,  and  to  con- 
vert these  into  something  upon  which  animals  can  subsist,  that  is, 
into  food.  All  food  is  produced  by  plants.  How  this  is  done,  it  is 
the  province  of  Vegetable  Physiology  to  explain. 

8.  Botany  is  the  name  of  the  science  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
general. 

9.  Physiology  is  the  study  of  the  way  a living  being  lives,  and 
grows,  and  performs  its  various  operations.  The  study  of  plants  in 
this  view  is  the  province  of  Vegetable  Physiology . The  study  of  the 
form  and  structure  of  the  organs  or  parts  of  the  vegetable,  by  which 
its  operations  are  performed,  is  the  province  of  Structural  Botany. 
The  two  together  constitute  Physiological  Botany.  With  this  de- 
partment the  study  of  Botany  should  begin;  both  because  it  lies 
at  the  foundation  of  all  the  rest,  and  because  it  gives  that  kind  of 
knowledge  of  plants  which  it  is  desirable  every  one  should  possess ; 
that  is,  some  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  plants  live,  grow,  and 
fulfil  the  purposes  of  their  existence.  To  this  subject,  accordingly, 
a large  portion  of  the  following  Lessons  is  devoted. 

10.  The  study  of  plants  as  to  their  hinds  is  the  province  of  Sys- 
tematic Botany.  An  enumeration  of  the  kinds  of  vegetables,  as  far 
as  known,  classified  according  to  their  various  degrees  of  resemblance 
-or  difference,  constitutes  a general  System  of  plants.  A similar  ac- 
count of  the  vegetables  of  any  particular  country  or  district  is  called 
a Flora  of  that  country  or  district. 

11.  Other  departments  of  Botany  come  to  view  when  — instead 
of  regarding  plants  as  to  what  they  are  in  themselves,  or  as  to  their 
relationship  with  each  other  — we  consider  them  in  their  relations 
to  other  things.  Their  relation  to  the  earth,  for  instance,  as  respects 
their  distribution  over  its  surface,  gives  rise  to  Geographical  Botany, 
or  Botanical  Geography.  The  study  of  the  vegetation  of  former 
times,  in  their  fossil  remains  entombed  in  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
gives  rise  to  Fossil  Botany.  The  study  of  plants  in  respect  to  their 
uses  to  man  is  the  province  of  Agricultural  Botany , Medical  Botany , 
and  the  like. 


4 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  2. 


LESSON  II. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. 

12.  Tile  Course  Of  Vegetation.  We  see  plants  growing  from  the 
seed  in  spring-time,  and  gradually  developing  their  parts  : at  length 
they  blossom,  bear  fruit,  and  produce  seeds  like  those  from  which 
they  grew.  Shall  we  commence  the  study  of  the  plant  with  the 
full-grown  herb  or  tree,  adorned  with  flowers  or  laden  with  fruit  ? 
Or  shall  we  commence  with  the  seedling  just  rising  from  the 
ground  ? On  the  whole,  we  may  get  a clearer  idea  of  the  whole 
life  and  structure  of  plants  if  we  begin  at  the  beginning,  that  is,  with 
the  plantlet  springing  from  the  seed,  and  follow  it  throughout  its 
course  of  growth.  This  also  agrees  best  with  the  season  in  which 
the  study  of  Botany  is  generally  commenced,  namely,  in  the  spring 
of  the  year,  when  the  growth  of  plants  from  the  seed  can  hardly 
fail  to  attract  attention.  Indeed,  it  is  this  springing  forth  of  vegeta- 
tion from  seeds  and  buds,  after  the  rigors  of  our  long  winter, — 
clothing  the  earth’s  surface  almost  at  once  with  a mantle  of  freshest 
verdure,  — which  gives  to  spring  its  greatest  charm.  Even  the 
dullest  beholder,  the  least  observant  of  Nature  at  other  seasons, 
can  then  hardly  fail  to  ask  : What  are  plants  ? How  do  they  live 
and  grow  ? What  do  they  live  upon  ? What  is  the  object  and  use 
of  vegetation  in  general,  and  of  its  particular  and  wonderfully  various 
forms  ? These  questions  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  Lessons  to 
answer,  as  far  as  possible,  in  a simple  way. 

13.  A reflecting  as  well  as  observing  person,  noticing  the  re- 
semblances between  one  plant  and  another,  might  go  on  to  inquire 
whether  plants,  with  all  their  manifold  diversities  of  form  and 
appearance,  are  not  all  constructed  on  one  and  the  same  general 
plan.  It  will  become  apparent,  as  we  proceed,  that  this  is  the 
case ; — that  one  common  plan  may  be  discerned,  which  each  par- 
ticular plant,  whether  herb,  shrub,  or  tree,  has  followed  much  more 
closely  than  would  at  first  view  be  supposed.  The  differences,  wide 
as  they  are,  are  merely  incidental.  What  is  true  in  a general  way 
of  any  ordinary  vegetable,  will  be  found  to  be  true  of  all,  only  with 
great  variation  in  the  details.  In  the  same  language,  though  in 
varied  phrase,  the  hundred  thousand  kinds  of  plants  repeat  the  same 


LESSON  2.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  5 

story,  — are  the  living  witnesses  and  illustrations  of  one  and  the 
same  plan  of  Creative  Wisdom  in  the  vegetable  world.  So  that  the 
study  of  any  one  plant,  traced  from  the  seed  it  springs  from  round 
to  the  seeds  it  produces,  would  illustrate  the  whole  subject  of  vege- 
table life  and  growth.  It  matters  little,  therefore,  what  particular 
plant  we  begin  with. 

14.  The  Germinating  Plantlet.  Take  for  example  a seedling  Maple. 
Sugar  Maples  may  be  found  in  abundance  in  many  places,  starting 
from  the  seed  (i.  e.  germinating)  in  early  spring,  and  Red  Maples 
at  the  beginning  of  summer,  shortly  after  the  fruits  of  the  season 
have  ripened  and  fallen  to  the  ground.  A pair  of  narrow  green 
leaves  raised  on  a tiny  stem  make  up  the  whole  plant  at  its  first 
appearance  (Fig.  4).  Soon  a root  appears  at  the  lower  end  of  this 
stemlet  ; then  a little  bud  at  its  upper  end,  between  the  pair  of 
leaves,  which  soon  grows  into  a second  joint  or 
stem  bearing  another  pair  of  leaves,  resembling 
the  ordinary  leaves  of  the  Red  Maple,  which 
the  first  did  not.  Figures  5 and  6 represent 
these  steps  in  the  growth. 

15.  Was  this  plantlet  formed  in  the  seed  at 
the  time  of  germination,  something  as  the  chick 
is  formed  in  the  egg  during  the  process  of  incu- 
bation ? Or  did  it  exist  before  in  the  seed, 
ready  formed  ? To  decide  this  question,  we 
have  only  to  inspect  a sound  seed,  which  in  this 
instance  requires  no  microscope,  nor  any  other 
instrument  than  a sharp  knife,  by  which  the 
coats  of  the  seed  (previously  soaked  in  water,  if 
dry)  may  be  laid  open.  We  find  within  the 
seed,  in  this  case,  the  little  plantlet  ready  formed, 
and  nothing  else  (Fig.  2);  — namely,  a pair 
of  leaves  like  those  of  the  earliest  seedling 
(Fig.  4),  only  smaller,  borne  on  a stemlet  just 
like  that  of  the  seedling,  only  much  shorter, 
and  all  snugly  coiled  up  within  the  protecting 
seed-coat.  The  plant  then  exists  beforehand 
in  the  seed,  in  miniature.  It  was  not  formed,  but  only  devel- 

FIG.  1.  A winged  fruit  of  Red  Maple,  with  the  seed-bearing  portion  cut  open,  to  show  the 
seed.  2.  This  seed  cut  open  to  show  the  embryo  plantlet  within,  enlarged.  3.  The  embryo 
taken  out  whole,  and  partly  unfolded.  4.  The  same  after  it  has  begun  to  grow  ; of  the 
natural  size. 


1* 


6 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  2. 


oped,  in  germination  ; when  it  had  merely  to  unfold  and  grow,  — 
to  elongate  its  rudimentary  stem,  which  takes 
at  the  same  time  an  upright  position,  so  as  to 
bring  the  leaf-bearing  end  into  the  light  and  air, 
where  the  two  leaves  expand ; while  from  the 
opposite  end,  now  pushed  farther  downwards 
into  the  soil,  the  root  begins  to  grow.  All  this 
is  true  in  the  main  of  all  plants  that  spring  from 
real  seeds,  although  with  great  diversity  in  the 
particulars.  At  least,  there  is  hardly  an  excep- 
tion to  the  fact,  that  the  plantlet  exists  ready 
formed  in  the  seed , in  some  shape  or  other. 

16.  The  rudimentary  plantlet  contained  in 
the  seed  is  called  an  Embryo . Its  little  stem 
is  named  the  Radicle , because  it  was  supposed 
to  be  the  root,  when  the  difference  between  the 
root  and  stem  was  not  so  well  known  as  now. 
It  were  better  to  name  it  the  Caulicle  (i.  e. 
little  stem)  ; but  it  is  not  expedient  to  change 
old  names.  The  seed-leaves  it  bears  on  its  sum- 
mit (here  two  in  number)  are  technically  called 
Cotyledons.  The  little  bud  of  undeveloped 
leaves  which  is  to  be  found  between  the  co- 
tyledons before  germination  in  many  cases  (as  in  the  Pea,  Bean, 
Fig.  17,  &c.),  has  been  named  the  Plumule. 

17.  In  the  Maple  (Fig.  4),  as  also  in  the  Morning-Glory  (Fig. 
28),  and  the  like,  this  bud,  or  plumule,  is  not  seen  for  some  days 
after  the  seed-leaves  are  expanded.  But  soon  it  appears,  in  the 
Maple  as  a pair  of  minute  leaves  (Fig.  5),  erelong  raised  on  a stalk 
which  carries  them  up  to  some  distance  above  the  cotyledons.  The 
plantlet  (Fig.  6)  now  consists,  above  ground,  of  two  pairs  of  leaves, 
viz. : 1.  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves,  borne  on  the  summit  of  the 
original  stemlet  (the  radicle)  ; and  2.  a pair  of  ordinary  leaves, 
raised  on  a second  joint  of  stem  which  has  grown  from  the  top 
of  the  first.  Later,  a third  pair  of  leaves  is  formed,  and  raised 
on  a third  joint  of  stem,  proceeding  from  the  summit  of  the  second 
(Fig.  7),  just  as  that  did  from  the  first;  and  so  on,  until  the  germi- 
nating plantlet  becomes  a tree. 


FIG.  5.  Germinating  Red  Maple,  which  has  produced  its  root  beneath,  and  is  developing 
a second  pair  of  leaves  above.  6.  Same,  further  advanced. 


LESSON  2.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  7 

18.  So  the  youngest  seedling,  and  even  the  embryo  in  the  seed, 
is  already  an  epitome  of  the  herb  or  tree.  It  has  a stem,  from  the 
lower  end  of  which  it  strikes  root ; and  it 
has  leaves.  The  tree  itself  in  its  whole 
vegetation  has  nothing  more  in  kind. 

To  become  a tree,  the  plantlet  has  only 
to  repeat  itself  upwardly  by  producing 
more  similar  parts,  — that  is,  new  por- 
tions of  stem,  with  new  and  larger  leaves, 
in  succession,  — while  beneath,  it  pushes 
its  root  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  soil. 

19.  The  Opposite  Growth  of  Root  and 
Stem  began  at  the  beginning  of  germi- 
nation, and  it  continues  through  the 
whole  life  of  the  plant.  While  yet 
buried  in  the  soil,  and  perhaps  in  total 
darkness,  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  grow, 
the  stem  end  of  the  embryo  points 
towards  the  light,  — curving  or  turning 
quite  round  if  it  happens  to  lie  in 
some  other  direction,  — and  stretches 
upwards  into  the  free  air  and  sunshine  ; 
while  the  root  end  as  uniformly  avoids 
the  light,  bends  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  do  so  if  necessary,  and  ever  seeks  to  bury  itself  more  and  more 
in  the  earth’s  bosom.  How  the  plantlet  makes  these  movements,  we 
cannot  explain.  But  the  object  of  this  instinct  is  obvious.  It 
places  the  plant  from  the  first  in  the  proper  position,  with  its  roots 
in  the  moist  soil,  from  which  they  are  to  absorb  nourishment,  and  its 
leaves  in  the  light  and  air,  where  alone  they  can  fulfil  their  office  of 
digesting  what  the  roots  absorb. 

20.  So  the  seedling  plantlet  finds  itself  provided  with  all  the 
organs  of  vegetation  that  even  the  oldest  plant  possesses,  — namely, 
root,  stem,  and  leaves ; and  has  these  placed  in  the  situation  where 
each  is  to  act,  — the  root  in  the  soil,  the  foliage  in  the  light  and  air. 
Thus  established,  the  plantlet  has  only  to  set  about  its  proper  work. 

21.  The  different  Mode  of  Growth  of  Root  and  Stem  may  also  be  here 
mentioned.  Each  grows,  not  only  in  a different  direction,  but  in  a 
different  way.  The  stem  grows  by  producing  a set  of  joints,  each  from 

FTG.  7.  Germinating  Red  Maple,  further  developed. 


8 GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  2. 

the  summit  of  its  predecessor ; and  each  joint  elongates  throughout 
every  part,  until  it  reaches  its  full  length.  The  root  is  not  composed 
of  joints,  and  it  lengthens  only  at  the  end.  The  stem  in  the  embryo 
(viz.  the  radicle)  has  a certain  length  to  begin  with.  In  the  pump- 
kin-seed, for  instance  (Fig.  9),  it  is  less  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
long : but  it  grows  in  a few  days  to  the  length  of  one  or  two  inches 
(Fig.  10),  or  still  more,  if  the  seed  were  deeper  covered  by  the  soil. 
It  is  by  this  elongation  that  the  seed-leaves  are  raised  out  of  the 
soil,  so  as  to  expand  in  the  light  and  air.  The  length  they  acquire 
varies  with  the  depth  of  the  covering.  When  large  and  strong  seeds 
are  too  deeply  buried,  the  stemlet  sometimes  grows  to  the  length  of 
several  inches  in  the  endeavor  to  bring  the  seed-leaves  to  the  sur- 
face. The  lengthening  of  the  succeeding  joints  of  the  stem  serves  to 
separate  the  leaves,  or  pairs  of  leaves,  from  one  another,  and  to  ex- 
pose them  more  fully  to  the  light. 

22.  The  root,  on  the  other  hand,  begins  by  a new  formation  at 
the  base  of  the  embryo  stem ; and  it  continues  to  increase  in  length 
solely  by  additions  to  the  extremity,  the  parts  once  formed  scarcely 
elongating  at  all  afterwards.  This  mode  of  growth  is  well  adapted 
to  the  circumstances  in  which  roots  are  placed,  leaving  every  part 
undisturbed  in  the  soil  where  it  was  formed,  while  the  ever-advan- 
cing points  readily  insinuate  themselves  into  the  crevices  or  looser 
portions  of  the  soil,  or  pass  around  the  surface  of  solid  obstacles. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. 


9 


LESSON  III. 

GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. Continued. 

23.  So  a plant  consists  of  two  parts,  growing  in  a different  manner, 
as  well  as  in  opposite  directions.  One  part,  the  root,  grows  down- 
wards into  the  soil : it  may,  therefore,  be  called  the  descending  axis. 
The  other  grows  upwards  into  the  light  and  air : it  may  be  called 
the  ascending  axis.  The  root  grows  on  continuously  from  the  ex- 
tremity, and  so  does  not  consist  of  joints,  nor  does  it  bear  leaves, 
or  anything  of  the  kind.  The  stem  grows  by  a succession  of 
joints,  each'  bearing  one  or  more  leaves  on  its  summit.  Root  on 
the  one  .hand,  and  stem  with  its  foliage  on  the  other,  make  up  the 
whole  plantlet  as. it; springs  from  the  seed;  and  the  full-grown  herb, 
shrub,  or  tree  has : nothing  more  in  kind, — only  more  in  size  and 
number.  Before  We  trace  the  plantlet  into  the  herb  or  tree,  some 
other  cases  of  the  growth  of  the  plantlet  from  the  seed  should  be 
studied,  that  wTe  may  observe  how  the  same  plan  is  worked  out  under 
a variety  of  forms,  vTith  certain  differences  in  the  details.  The  mate- 
rials for  this  study  are  always  at  hand.  We  have  only  to  notice  what 
takes  place  all  around  us  in  spring,  or  to  plant  some  common  seeds 
in  pots,  keep  them  warm  and  moist,  and  watch  their  germination. 

24.  The  Germinating  Plantlet  feeds  on  Nourishment  provided  beforehand. 
The  embryo  so  snugly  ensconced  in  the  seed  of  the  Maple  (Fig.  2, 
3,  4)  has  from  the  first  a miniature  stem,  and  a pair  of  leaves  already 
green,  or  wrhich  become  green  as  soon  as  brought  to  the  light.  It 
has  only  to  form  a root  by  which  to  fix  itself  to  the  ground,  when  it 
becomes  a perfect  though  diminutive  vegetable,  capable  of  providing 
for  itself.  This  root  can  be  formed  only  out  of  proper  material : 
neither  water  nor  anything  else  which  the  plantlet  is  imbibing  from 
the  earth  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  proper  material  is  nourish- 
ing matter,  or  prepared  food,  more  or  less  of  which  is  always  pro- 
vided by  the  parent  plant,  and  stored  up  in  the  seed,  either  in  the 
embryo  itself,  or  around  it.  In  the  Maple,  this  nourishment  is  stored 
up  in  the  thickish  cotyledons,  or  seed-leaves.  And  there  is  barely 
enough  of  it  to  make  the  beginning  of  a root,  and  to  provide  for  the 
lengthening  of  the  stemlet  so  as  to  bring  up  the  unfolding  seed-leaves 
where  they  may  expand  to  the  light  of  day.  But  wdien  this  is  done, 


10  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  3. 

the  tiny  plant  is  already  able  to  shift  for  itself ; — that  is,  to  live  and 
continue  its  growth  on  what  it  now  takes  from  the  soil  and  from  the 
air,  and  elaborates  into  nourishment  in  its  two  green  leaves,  under 
the  influence  of  the  light  of  the  sun. 

25.  In  most  ordinary  plants,  a larger  portion  of  nourishment  is 
provided  beforehand  in  the  seed ; and  the  plantlet  consequently  is 
not  so  early  or  so  entirely  left  to  its  own  resources.  Let  us  examine 
a number  of  cases,  selected  from  very  common  plants.  Sometimes, 
as  has  just  been  stated,  we  find  this 

26.  Deposit  Of  Food  in  the  Embryo  itself.  And  we  may  observe  it 
in  every  gradation  as  to  quantity,  from  the  Maple  of  our  first  illus- 
tration, where  there  is  very  little,  up  to 
the  Pea  and  the  Horsechestnut,  where 
there  is  as  much  as  there  possibly  can 
be.  If  we  strip  off  the  coats  from  the 
large  and  flat  seed  of  a Squash  or 
Pumpkin,  we  find  nothing  but  the  em- 
bryo within  (Fig.  9)  ; and  almost  the 
whole  bulk  of  this  consists  of  the  two 
seed-leaves.  That  these  contain  a good 
supply  of  nourishing  matter,  is  evident 
from  their  sweet  taste  and  from  their 
thickness,  although  there  is  not  enough 
to  obscure  their  leaf-like  appearance. 
It  is  by  feeding  on  this  supply  of  nour- 
ishment that  the  germinating  Squash  or 
Pumpkin  (Fig.  10)  grows  so  rapidly 
and  so  vigorously  from  the  seed,  — 
lengthening  its  stemlet  to  more  than 
twenty  times  the  length  it  had  in  the 
seed,  and  thickening  it  in  proportion,  — 
sending  out  at  once  a number  of  roots 
from  its  lower  end,  and  soon  developing 

the  plumule  (16)  from  its  upper  end  into  a third  leaf:  meanwhile 
the  two  cotyledons,  relieved  from  the  nourishment  with  which  their 
tissue  was  gorged,  have  expanded  into  useful  green  leaves. 

27.  For  a stronger  instance,  take  next  the  seed  of  a Plum  or 
Peach,  or  an  Almond,  or  an  Apple-seed  (Fig.  11,  12),  which  shows 

FIG.  9.  Embryo  of  a Pumpkin,  of  the  natural  size ; the  cotyledons  a little  opened. 
JO.  The  same,  when  it  has  germinated. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  11 

the  same  thing  on  a smaller  scale.  The  embryo,  which  here  also 
makes  up  the  whole  bulk  of  the  kernel  of  the 
seed,  differs  from  that  of  the  Pumpkin  only 
in  having  the  seed-leaves  more  thickened,  by 
the  much  larger  quantity  of  nourishment  stored 
up  in  their  tissue,  — so  large  and  so  pure  in- 
deed, that  the  almond  becomes  an  article  of 
food.  Fed  by  this  abundant  supply,  the  second, 
and  even  the  third  joints  of  the  stem,  with 
their  leaves,  shoot  forth  as  soon  as  the  stemlet  comes  to  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  The  Beech-nut  (Fig.  13),  with 
its  sweet  and  eatable  kernel,  consisting 
mainly  of  a pair  of  seed-leaves  folded 
together,  and  gorged  with  nourishing 
matter,  offers  another  instance  of  the 
same  sort : this  ample  store  to  feed 
upon  enables  the  germinating  plantlet 
to  grow  with  remarkable  vigor,  and  to 
develop  a second  joint  of  stem,  with  its 
pair  of  leaves  (Fig.  14),  before  the  first 
pair  has  expanded  or  the  root  has  ob- 
tained much  foothold  in  the  soil. 

28.  A Bean  affords  a similar  and 
more  familiar  illustration.  Here  the  co- 
tyledons in  the  seed  (Fig.  16)  are  so 
thick,  that,  although  they  are  raised  out 
of  ground  in  the  ordinary  way  in  ger- 
mination (Fig.  17),  and  turn  greenish, 
yet  they  never  succeed  in  becoming  leaf- 
like, — never  display  their  real  nature  of 
leaves,  as  they  do  so  plainly  in  the  Ma- 
ple (Fig.  5),  the  Pumpkin  (Fig.  10),  the 
Morning-Glory  (Fig.  8,  26  - 28),  &c. 

Turned  to  great  account  as  magazines 
of  food  for  the  germinating  plantlet,  they 
fulfil  this  special  office  admirably,  but 

FIG.  11.  An  Apple-seed  cut  through  lengthwise,  showing  the  embryo  with  its  thickened 
cotyledons.  12.  The  embryo  of  the  Apple,  taken  out  whole,  its  cotyledons  partly  separated. 

FIG.  13.  A Beech-nut,  cut  across.  14.  Beginning  germination  of  the  Beech,  showing  the 
plumule  growing  before  the  cotyledons  have  opened  or  the  root  has  scarcely  formed.  15.  The 
same,  a little  later,  with  the  second  joint  lengthened. 


12 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  3. 


they  were  so  gorged  and,  as  it  were,  misshapen,  that  they  became 
quite  unfitted  to  perform  the  office  of 
foliage.  This  office  is  accordingly  first 
performed  by  the  succeeding  pair  of 
leaves,  those  of  the  plumule  (Fig.  17, 
18),  which  is  put  into  rapid  growth  by 
the  abundant  nourishment  contained  in 
the  large  and  thick  seed-leaves.  The 
latter,  having  fulfilled  this  office,  soon 
wither  and  fall  away. 

29.  This  is  carried  a step  farther  in 
the  Pea  (Fig.  19,  2G),  a near  relative 
of  the  Bean, 
and  in  the 
Oak  (Fig. 

21,  22),  a 
near  relative 
of  the  Beech. 

The  differ- 
ence in  these 
and  many 
other  similar 
cases  is  this. 

The  cotyledons,  which  make  up  nearly 
the  whole  bulk  of  the  seed  are  exces- 
sively thickened,  so  as  to  become  nearly 
hemispherical  in  shape.  They  have  lost 
all  likeness  to  leaves,  and  all  power  of 
ever  fulfilling  the  office  of  leaves.  Ac- 
cordingly in  germination  they  remain 
unchanged  within  the  husk  or  coats  of 
the  seed,  never  growing  themselves,  but 
supplying  abundant  nourishment  to  the 
plumule  (the  bud  for  the  forming  stem) 
between  them.  This  pushes  forth  from 
the  seed,  shoots  upward,  and  gives  rise 


FIG.  16.  A Bean : the  embryo,  from  which  seed-coats  have  been  removed : the  small 
stem  is  seen  above,  bent  down  upon  the  edge  of  the  thick  cotyledons.  17.  The  same  in  early 
germination  ; the  plumule  growing  from  between  the  two  seed-leaves.  18.  The  germination 
more  advanced,  the  two  leaves  of  the  plumule  unfolded,  and  raised  on  a short  joint  of  stem. 

FIG.  19.  A Pea : the  embryo,  with  the  seed-coats  taken  off.  20.  A Pea  in  germination. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  13 

to  the  first  leaves  that  appear.  In  most  cases  of  the  sort,  the  radicle, 
or  short  original  stemlet  of  the  embryo  be- 
low the  cotyledons  (which  is  plainly  shown 
in  the  Pea,  Fig.  19),  lengthens  very  little, 
or  not  at  all ; and  so  the  cotyledons  remain 
under  ground,  if  the  seed  was  covered  by 
the  soil,  as  every  one  knows  to  be  the  case 
with  Peas.  In  these  (Fig.  20),  as  also  in 
the  Oak  (Fig.  22),  the  leaves  of  the  first 
one  or  two  joints  are  imperfect,  and  mere 
small  scales ; but  genuine  leaves  immedi- 
ately follow.  The  Horsechestnut  and  Buck- 
eye (Fig.  23,  24)  furnish  another  instance 
of  the  same  sort.  These  trees  are  nearly 
related  to  the  Maple  ; but  while  the  seed- 
leaves  of  the  Maple  show  themselves  to 
be  leaves,  even  in  the  seed  (as  we  have 
already  seen),  and  when  they  germinate 
fulfil  the  office  of  ordinary  leaves,  those 
of  the  Buckeye  and  of  the  Horsechestnut 
(Fig.  23),  would  never  be  suspected  to  be 
the  same  organs.  Yet  they  are  so,  only 
in  another  shape,  — exceedingly  thickened 
by  the  accumulation  of  a great  quantity 
of  starch  and  other  nourishing  matter  in 
their  substance  ; and  besides,  their  contigu- 
ous faces  stick  together  more  or  less  firmly, 
so  that  they  never  open.  But  the  stalks 
of  these  seed-leaves  grow,  and,  as  they 
lengthen,  push  the  radicle  and  the  plumule 
out  of  the  seed,  when  the  one  grows  downward  to  make  the  root,  the 
other  upward  to  form  the  leafy  stem  (Fig.  24). 

30.  Deposit  of  Food  outside  of  the  Embryo.  Very  often  the  nourish- 
ment provided  for  the  seedling  plantlet  is  laid  up,  not  in  the  embryo 
itself,  but  around  it.  A good  instance  to  begin  with  is  furnished  by 
the  common  Morning-Glory,  or  Convolvulus.  The  embryo,  taken 
out  of  the  seed  and  straightened,  is  shown  in  Fig.  26.  It  consists 
of  a short  stemlet  and  of  a pair  of  very  thin  and  delicate  green 
leaves,  having  no  stock  of  nourishment  in  them  for  sustaining  the 

FIG.  21.  An  aeorn  divided  lengthwise.  22.  The  germinating  Oak. 

2 


14 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  3. 


earliest  growth.  On  cutting  open  the  seed,  however,  we  find  this 
embryo  (considerably  crumpled  or  folded  together,  so  as  to  occupy 

less  space,  Fig.  25)  to  be  surround- 
ed by  a mass  of  rich,  mucilaginous 
matter  (becoming  rather  hard  and 
solid  when  dry),  which  forms  the 
principal  bulk  of  the  seed.  Upon 
this  stock  the  embryo  feeds  in  ger- 
mination ; the  seed-leaves  absorbing 
it  into  their  tissue  as  it  is  rendered 
soluble  (through  certain  chemical 
changes)  and  dissolved  by  the  wa- 
ter which  the  germinating  seed  im- 
bibes from  the  moist  soil.  Having 
by  this  aid 
lengthened 
its  radicle 
into  a stem 
of  consider- 
able length, 

and  formed  the  beginning  of  a root  at  its 
lower  end,  already  imbedded  in  the  soil 
(Fig.  27),  the  cotyledons  now  disengage 
themselves  from  the  seed-coats,  and  ex- 
pand in  the  light  as  the  first  pair  of  leaves 
(Fig.  28).  These  immediately  begin  to 
elaborate,  under  the  sun’s  influence,  what 
the  root  imbibes  from  the  soil,  and  the  new 
nourishment  so  produced  is  used,  partly  to 
increase  the  size  of  the  little  stem,  root, 
and  leaves  already  existing,  and  partly  to 
produce  a second  joint  of  stem  with  its 
leaf  (Fig.  29),  then  a third  with  its  leaf 
(Fig.  8)  ; and  so  on. 

31.  This  maternal  store  of  food,  deposited  in  the  seed  along  with 
the  embryo  (but  not  in  its  substance),  the  old  botanists  likened  to 

FIG.  23.  Buckeye  : a seed  divided.  24.  A similar  seed  in  gemination. 

FIG.  25.  Seed  and  embryo  of  Morning-Glory,  cut  across.  26.  Embryo  of  the  same  de- 
tached and  straightened.  27.  Germinating  Morning-Glory.  28.  The  same  further  advanced  ; 
its  two  thin  seed-leaves  expanded. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. 


15 


the  albumen , or  white  of  the  egg,  which  encloses  the  yolk,  and 
therefore  gave  it  the  same  name, — the  albumen  of  the  seed,  — a 
name  which  it  still  retains.  Food  of  this  sort  for  the  plant  is  also 
food  for  animals,  or  for  man  ; and  it  is 
this  albumen,  the  floury  part  of  the  seed, 
which  forms  the  principal  bulk  of  such 
important  grains  as  those  of  Indian  Corn 
(Fig.  38  - 40),  Wheat,  Rice,  Buck- 
wheat, and  of  the  seed  of  Four-o’clock, 

(Fig.  36,  37),  and  the  like.  In  all 
these  last-named  cases,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  embryo  is  not  enclosed 
in  the  albumen,  but  placed  on  one  side 
of  it,  yet  in  close  contact  with  it,  so 
that  the  embryo  may  absorb  readily 
from  it  the  nourishment  it  requires 
when  it  begins  to  grow.  Sometimes 
the  embryo  is  coiled  around  the  outside,  in  the  form  of  a ring,  as 
in  the  Purslane  and  the  Four-o’clock  (Fig.  36,  37) ; sometimes  it  is 
coiled  within  the  albumen,  as  in  the  Potato  (Fig.  34,  35)  ; some- 
times it  is  straight  in  the  centre  of  the  albumen,  occupying  nearly  its 

whole  length,  as  in 
the  Barberry  (Fig. 
32,  33),  or  much 
smaller  and  near  one 
end,  as  in  the  Iris 
(Fig.  43)  ; or  some- 
times so  minute,  in 
the  midst  of  the  al- 
bumen, that  it  needs 
a magnifying-glass  to 
find  it,  as  in  the  But- 

FIG.  29.  Germination  of  the  Morning  Glory  more  advanced : the  upper  part  only ; showing 
the  leafy  cotyledons,  the  second  joint  of  stem  with  its  leaf,  and  the  third  with  its  leaf  just 
developing. 

FIG.  30.  Section  of  a seed  of  a Peony,  showing  a very  small  embryo  in  the  albumen, 
near  one  end.  31.  This  embryo  detached,  and  more  magnified. 

FIG.  32.  Section  of  a seed  of  Barberry,  showing  the  straight  embryo  in  the  middle  of 
the  albumen.  33.  Its  embryo  detached. 

FIG.  34.  Section  of  a Potato-seed,  showing  the  embryo  coiled  in  the  albumen.  35.  Its 
embryo  detached. 

FIG.  36.  Section  of  the  seed  of  Four-o’clock,  showing  the  embryo  coiled  round  the 
outside  of  the  albumen.  37.  Its  embryo  detached. 


16  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  3. 

tercup  or  the  Columbine,  and  in  the  Peony  (Fig.  30,  31),  where, 
however,  it  is  large  enough  to  be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye. 
Nothing  is  more  curious  than  the  various  shapes  and  positions  of 
the  embryo  in  the  seed,  nor  more  interesting  than  to  watch  its  de- 
velopment in  germination.  One  point  is  still  to  be  noticed,  since 
the  botanist  considers  it  of  much  importance,  namely  : — 

32.  The  Kinds  of  Embryo  as  to  the  Number  of  Cotyledons.  In  all  the 
figures,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  embryo,  however  various  in  shape, 
is  constructed  on  one  and  the  same  plan  ; — it  consists  of  a radicle  or 
stemlet,  wjth  a pair  of  cotyledons  on  its  summit.  Botanists  there- 
fore call  it  dicotyledonous , — an  inconveniently  long  word  to  express 
the  fact  that  the  embryo  has  two  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves.  In 
many  cases  (as  in  the  Buttercup),  the  cotyledons  are  indeed  so 
minute,  that  they  are  discerned  only  by  the  nick  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  little  embryo ; yet  in  germination  they  grow  into  a pair  of 
seed-leaves,  just  as  in  other  cases  where  they  are  plain  to  be  seen, 
as  leaves,  in  the  seed.  But  in  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  40),  in  Wheat, 
the  Onion,  the  Iris  (Fig.  43),  &c.,  it  is  well  known  that  only  one 

leaf  appears  at  first  from  the 
sprouting  seed:  in  these  the 
embryo  has  only  one  cotyle- 
don, and  it  is  therefore  termed 
by  the  botanists  monocotyledo- 
nous  ; — an  extremely  long 
word,  like  the  other,  of  Greek  derivation,  which  means  one-cotyle- 
doned.  The  rudiments  of  one  or  more  other  leaves  are,  indeed, 
commonly  present  in  this  sort  of  embryo,  as  is  plain  to  see  in  Indian 
Corn  (Fig.  38  - 40),  but  they  form  a bud  situated  above  or  within 
the  cotyledon,  and  enclosed  by  it  more  or  less  completely ; so  that 
they  evidently  belong  to  the  plumule  (16)  ; and  these  leaves  appear 
in  the  seedling  plantlet,  each  from  within  its  predecessor,  and  there- 
fore originating  higher  up  on  the  forming  stem  (Fig.  42,  44).  This 
will  readily  be  understood  from  the  accompanying  figures,  with  their 
explanation,  which  the  student  may  without  difficulty  verify  for  him- 

FIG.  38.  A grain  of  Indian  Corn,  flatwise,  cut  away  a little,  so  as  to  show  the  embryo, 
lying  on  the  albumen,  which  makes  the  principal  bulk  of  the  seed. 

FIG.  39.  Another  grain  of  Corn,  cut  through  the  middle  in  the  opposite  direction,  divid- 
ing the  embryo  through  its  thick  cotyledon  and  its  plumule,  the  latter  consisting  of  two 
leaves,  one  enclosing  the  other. 

FIG.  40.  The  embryo  of  Corn,  taken  out  whole : the  thick  mass  is  the  cotyledon  ; the 
narrow  body  partly  enclosed  by  it  is  the  plumule  ; the  little  projection  at  its  base  is  the  very 
short  radicle  enclosed  in  the  sheathing  base  of  the  first  leaf  of  the  plumule. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. 


17 


self,  and  should  do  so,  by  examining  grains  of  Indian  Corn,  soaked 
in  water,  before  and  also  during  germination.  In  the  Onion,  Lily, 
and  the  Iris  (Fig.  43),  the  monocotyledonous  embryo  is  simpler, 
consisting  apparently  of  a simple  oblong  or  cylindrical 
body,  in  which  no  distinction  of  parts  is  visible  : the  lower 
end  is  radicle , and  from  it  grows  the  root ; the  rest  is  a 
cotyledon , which  has  wrapped  up  in  it  a minute  'plumule , 
or  bud,  that  shows  itself  when  the  seeds  sprout  in  germi- 
nation. The  first  leaf  which  appears  above  ground  in  all  I 
these  cases  is  not  the  cotyledon.  In  all  seeds  with  one  coty-  If 
ledon  to  the  embryo,  this  remains  in  the  seed,  or  at  least  \ 
its  upper  part,  while  its  lengthening  base  comes  out,  so  as  4 
to  extricate  the  plumule,  which  shoots  upward,  and  de- 
velops the  first  leaves  of  the  plantlet.  These  appear  one 
above  or  within  the  other  in  succes- 
sion,— as  is  shown  in  Fig.  42  and 
Fig.  44, — the  first  commonly  in  the 
form  of  a little  scale  or  imperfect  ' 

leaf;  the  second  or  third  and  the  41 
following  ones  as  the  real,  ordinary  leaves  of 
the  plant.  Meanwhile,  from  the  root  end  of 
the  embryo,  a root  (Fig.  41,  44),  or  soon  a 
whole  cluster  of  roots  (Fig.  42),  makes  its 
appearance. 

33.  In  Pines,  and  the  like,  the  embryo  con- 
sists of  a radicle  or  stemlet,  bearing  on  its 
summit  three  or  four,  or  often  from  five  to 
ten  slender  cotyledons,  arranged  in  a 
circle  (Fig.  45),  and  expanding  at 
once  into  a circle  of  as  many  green 
leaves  in  germination  (Fig.  46).  Such 
embryos  are  said  to  be  polycotyledonous, 
that  is,  as  the  word  denotes,  many- 
cotyledoned. 

34.  Plan  of  Vegetation.  The  student 
who  has  understandingly  followed  the 
growth  of  the  embryo  in  the  seed  into  the  seedling  plantlet,  — com- 
posed of  a root,  and  a stem  of  two  or  three  joints,  each  bearing  a 

FIG.  41.  Grain  of  Indian  Corn  in  germination. 

FIG.  42.  The  same,  further  advanced. 

2* 


18 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED.  [LESSON  3. 


leaf,  or  a pair  (rarely  a circle)  of  leaves,  — will  have  gained  a cor- 
rect idea  of  the  plan  of  vegetation  in  general,  and  have  laid  a good 
foundation  for  a knowledge  of  the  whole  structure  and  physiology 

43  of  plants.  For  the  plant  goes  on  to  grow  in  the  same 
way  throughout,  by  mere  repetitions  of  what  the  early 
germinating  plantlet  displays  to  view,  — of  what  was 
contained,  in  miniature  or  in  rudiment,  in  the  seed  itself. 
So  far  as  vegetation  is  concerned  (leaving  out  of  view 
for  the  present  the  flower  and  fruit),  the  full-grown  leafy 
herb  or  tree,  of  whatever  size,  has  nothing,  and  does 
nothing,  which  the  seedling  plantlet  does  not  have  and 
do.  The  whole  mass  of  stem  or  trunk  and  foliage  of 
the  complete  plant,  even  of  the  largest  forest-tree,  is 
composed  of  a succession  or  multiplication  of  similar 
parts,  — one  arising  from  the  summit  of  another, — 
each,  so  to  say,  the  offspring  of  the  preceding  and 
the  parent  of  the  next. 

35.  In  the  same  way  that  the  earliest  portions  of 
the  seedling  stem,  with  the  leaves 
they  bear,  are  successively  produced, 
so,  joint  by  joint  in  direct  succes- 
sion, a single,  simple,  leafy  stem  is 
developed  and  carried  up.  Of  such  a 
simple  leafy  stem  many  a plant  consists 
(before  flowering,  at  least),  — many 
herbs,  such  as  Sugar-Cane,  Indian 
Corn,  the  Lily,  the  tall  Banana,  the 
Yucca,  &c. ; and  among  trees  the 

44  Palms  and  the  Cycas  (wrongly  called 
Sago  Palm)  exhibit  the  same  simplicity,  their 
stems,  of  whatever  age,  being  unbranched  columns 
(Fig.  47).  (Growth  in  diameter  is  of  course  to  be  considered, 
as  well  as  growth  in  length.  That,  and  the  question  how  growth 
of  any  kind  takes  place,  we  will  consider  hereafter.)  But  more 
commonly,  as  soon  as  the  plant  has  produced  a main  stem  of  a cer- 
tain length,  and  displayed  a certain  amount  of  foliage,  it  begins  to 


FIG.  43.  Section  of  a seed  of  the  Iris,  or  Flower-de-Luce,  showing  its  small  embryo  in 
the  albumen,  near  the  bottom. 

, FIG.  44.  Germinating  plantlet  of  the  Iris. 

FIG.  45.  Section  of  a seed  of  a Pine,  with  its  embryo  of  several  cotyledons.  46.  Early 
seedling  Pine,  with  its  stemlet,  displaying  its  si#  seed-leaves. 


LESSON  3.]  GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANT  FROM  THE  SEED. 


19 


produce  additional  stems,  that  is,  branches.  The  branching  plant 
we  will  consider  in  the  next  Lesson. 

36.  The  subjoined  figures  (Fig.  47)  give  a view  of  some  forms 
of  simple-stemmed  vegetation.  The  figure  in  the  foreground  on 
the  left  represents  a Cycas  (wrongly  called  in  the  conservatories 
Sago  Palm).  Behind  it  is  a Yucca  (called  Spanish  Bayonet  at  the 
South)  and  two  Cocoanut  Palm-trees.  On  the  right  is  some  Indian 
Corn,  and  behind  it  a Banana. 


20 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  [LESSON  4. 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS  AND  BRANCHES. 

37.  We  have  seen  how  the  plant  grows  so  as  to  produce  a root, 
and  a simple  stem  with  its  foliage.  Both  the  root  and  stem,  how- 
ever, generally  branch. 

38.  The  branches  of  the  root  arise  without  any  particular  order. 
There  is  no  telling  beforehand  from  what  part  of  a main  root  they 
will  spring.  But  the  branches  of  the  stem,  except  in  some  extra- 
ordinary cases,  regularly  arise  from  a particular  place.  Branches 
or  shoots  in  their  undeveloped  state  are 

39.  Bllds.  These  regularly  appear  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  — 
that  is,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  leaf  with  the  stem  on  the  upper 
side ; and  as  leaves  are  symmetrically  arranged  on  the  stem,  the 
buds,  and  the  branches  into  which  the  buds  grow,  necessarily  par- 
take of  this  symmetry. 

40.  We  do  not  confine  the  name  of  bud  to  the  scaly  winter-buds 
which  are  so  conspicuous  on  most  of  our  shrubs  and  trees  in  winter 
and  spring.  It  belongs  as  well  to  the  forming  branch  of  any  herb,  at 
its  first  appearance  in  the  axil  of  a leaf.  In  growing,  buds  lengthen 
into  branches,  just  as  the  original  stem  did  from  the  plumule  of  the 
embryo  (16)  when  the  seed  germinated.  Only,  while  the  original 
stem  is  implanted  in  the  ground  by  its  root,  the  branch  is  implanted 
on  the  stem.  Branches,  therefore,  are  repetitions  of  the  main  stem. 
They  consist  of  the  same  parts,  — namely,  joints  of  stem  and  leaves, 
— growing  in  the  same  way.  And  in  the  axils  of  their  leaves 
another  crop  of  buds  is  naturally  produced,  giving  rise  to  another 
generation  of  branches,  which  may  in  turn  produce  still  another 
generation ; and  so  on,  — until  the  tiny  and  simple  seedling  develops 
into  a tall  and  spreading  herb  or  shrub  ; or  into  a massive  tree, 
with  its  hundreds  of  annually  increasing  branches,  and  its  thousands, 
perhaps  millions,  of  leaves. 

41.  The  herb  and  the  tree  grow  in  the  same  way.  The  difference 
is  only  in  size  and  duration. 

An  Herb  dies  altogether,  or  dies  down  to  the  ground,  after  it  has 
ripened  its  fruit,  or  at  the  approach  of  winter. 


LESSON  4.]  # GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS. 


21 


An  annual  herb  flowers  in  the  first  year,  and  dies,  root  and  all, 
after  ripening  its  seed : Mustard,  Peppergrass,  Buckwheat,  &c.,  are 
examples. 

A biennial  herb  — such  as  the  Turnip,  Carrot,  Beet,  and  Cabbage 
— grows  the  first  season  without  blossoming,  survives  the  winter, 
flowers  after  that,  and  dies,  root  and  all,  when  it  has  ripened  its  seed. 

A perennial  herb  lives  and  blossoms  year  after  year,  but  dies 
down  to  the  ground,  or  near  it,  annually,  — not,  however,  quite  down 
to  the  root : for  a portion  of  the  stem,  with  its  buds,  still  survives ; 
and  from  these  buds  the  shoots  of  the  following  year  arise. 

A Shrub  is  a perennial  plant,  with  woody  stems  which  continue 
alive  and  grow  year  after  year. 

A Tree  differs  from  a shrub  only  in  its  greater  size. 

42.  The  Terminal  Bud.  There  are  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees  which 
do  not  branch,  as  we  have  already  seen  (35)  ; but  whose  stems, 
even  when  they  liva  for  many  years,  rise  as  a simple  shaft 
(Fig.  47).  These  plants  grow  by  the  continued  evolution  of  a bud 
which  crowns  the  summit  of  the  stem,  and  which  is  therefore  called 
the  terminal  bud.  This  bud  is  very  conspicuous  in 
many  branching  plants  also ; as  on  all  the  stems  or 
shoots  of  Maples  (Fig.  53),  Horsechestnuts  (Fig.  48), 
or  Hickories  (Fig.  49),  of  a year  old.  When  they 
grow,  they  merely  prolong  the  shoot  or  stem  on  which 
they  rest.  On  these  same  shoots,  however,  other  buds 
are  to  be  seen,  regularly  arranged  down  their  sides. 

We  find  them  situated  just  over  broad,  flattened  places, 
which  are  the  scars  left  by  the  fall  of  the  leaf-stalk  the 
autumn  previous.  Before  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  they 
would  have  been  seen  to  occupy  their  axils  (39)  : so 
they  are  named 

43.  Axillary  Buds.  They  were  formed  in  these  trees 
early  in  the  summer.  Occasionally  they  grow  at  the 
time  into  branches : at  least,  some  of  them  are  pretty 
sure  to  do  so,  in  case  the  growing  terminal  bud  at  the 
end  of  the  shoot  is  injured  or  destroyed.  Otherwise 
they  lie  dormant  until  the  spring.  In  many  trees 
or  shrubs  (such  for  example  as  the  Sumach  and  Honey-Locust) 
these  axillary  buds  do  not  show  themselves  until  spring;  but  if 

FIG.  48.  Shoot  of  Horsechestnut,  of  one  year’s  growth,  taken  in  autumn  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen. 


22  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  [LESSON  4. 

searched  for,  they  may  be  detected,  though  of  small  size,  hidden 
under  the  bark.  Sometimes,  although  early  formed,  they  are  con- 
cealed all  summer  long  under  the  base  of  the  leaf- 
stalk, hollowed  out  into  a sort  of  inverted  cup,  like  a 
candle-extinguisher,  to  cover  them ; as  in  the  Locust, 
the  Yellow-wood,  or  more  strikingly  in  the  Button- 
wood  or  Plane-tree  (Fig.  50). 

44.  Such  large  and  conspicuous  buds  as  those  of 
the  Horsechestnut,  Hickory,  and  the  like,  are  scaly  ; 
the  scales  being  a kind  of  imperfect  leaves.  The 
use  of  the  bud-scales  is  obvious  ; namely,  to  protect 
the  tender  young  parts  beneath.  To  do  this  more 
effectually,  they  are  often  coated  on  the  outside  with 
a varnish  which  is  impervious  to  wet,  while  within 
they,  or  the  parts  they  enclose,  are  thickly  clothed 
with  down  or  wool ; not  really  to  keep  out  the  cold 
of  winter,  which  will  of  course  penetrate  the  bud  in 
time,  but  to  shield  the  interior  against  sudden  changes 
from  warm  to  cold,  or  from  cold  to  warm,  which  are 
equally  injurious.  Scaly  buds  commonly  belong,  as  'would  be  expect- 
ed, to  trees  and  shrubs  of  northern  climates ; while  naked  buds  are 
usual  in  tropical  regions,  as  well  as  in  herbs  everywhere  which 
branch  during  the  summer’s  growth  and  do  not  endure  the  winter. 


45.  But  naked  buds , or  nearly  naked,  also  occur  in  several  of  our 
own  trees  and  shrubs ; sometimes  pretty  large  ones,  as  those  of  Hob- 

F1G.  49.  Annual  shoot  of  the  Shagbark  Hickory. 

FIG.  50.  Bud  and  leaf  of  the  Buttonwood,  or  American  Plane-tree. 


LESSON  4.]  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS. 


23 


blebush  (while  those  of  the  nearly-related  Snowball  or  High  Bush- 
Cranberry  are  scaly)  ; but  more  commonly,  when  naked  buds  occur 
in  trees  and  shrubs  of  our  climate,  they  are  small,  and  sunk  in  the 
bark,  as  in  the  Sumac ; or  even  partly  buried  in  the  wood  until  they 
begin  to  grow,  as  in  the  Honey-Locust. 

46.  Vigor  of  Vegetation  from  Buds,  Large  and  strong  buds,  like  those 
of  the  Horsechestnut,  Hickory,  and  the  like,  on  inspection  will  be 
found  to  contain  several  leaves,  or  pairs  of  leaves,  ready  formed, 
folded  and  packed  away  in  small  compass,  just  as  the  seed-leaves 
are  packed  away  in  the  seed : they  even  contain  all  the  blossoms  of 
the  ensuing  season,  plainly  visible  as  small  buds.  And  the  stems 
upon  which  these  buds  rest  are  filled  with  abundant  nourishment, 
which  was  deposited  the  summer  before  in  the  wood  or  in  the  bark. 
Under  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  on  it,  covered  with  the  fallen  leaves 
of  autumn,  we  may  find  similar  strong  buds  of  our  perennial  herbs, 
in  great  variety ; while  beneath  are  thick  roots,  rootstocks,  or  tubers, 
charged  with  a great  store  of  nourishment  for  their  use.  As  we 
regard  these,  we  shall  readily  perceive  how  it  is  that  vegetation 
shoots  forth  so  vigorously  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  clothes  the 
bare  and  lately  frozen  surface  of  the  soil,  as  well  as  the  naked  , 
boughs  of  trees,  almost  at  once  with  a covering  of  the  freshest 
green,  and  often  with  brilliant  blossoms.  Everything  was  prepared, 
and  even  formed,  beforehand : the  short  joints  of  stem  in  the  bud 
have  only  to  lengthen,  and  to  separate  the  leaves  from  each  other 
so  that  they  may  unfold  and  grow.  Only  a small  part  of  the  vege- 
tation of  the  season  comes  directly  from  the  seed,  and  none  of  the 
earliest  vernal  vegetation.  This  is  all  from  buds  which  have  lived 
through  the  winter. 

47.  This  growth  from  buds,  in  manifold  variety,  is  as  interesting 
a subject  of  study  as  the  growth  of  the  plantlet  from  the  seed,  and 
is  still  easier  to  observe.  We  have  only  room  here  to  sketch  the 
general  plan ; earnestly  recommending  the  student  to  examine  at- 
tentively their  mode  of  growth  in  all  the  common  trees  and  shrubs, 
when  they  shoot  forth  in  spring.  The  growth  of  the  terminal  bud 
prolongs  the  stem  or  branch:  the  growth  of  axillary  buds  pro- 
duces branches. 

48.  The  Arrangement  of  Branches  is  accordingly  the  same  as  of 
axillary  buds ; and  the  arrangement  of  these  buds  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  leaves.  Now  leaves  are  arranged  in  two  principal  ways  : 
they  are  either  opposite  or  alternate.  Leaves  are  opposite  when 


24 


GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  [LESSON  4. 


there  are  two  borne  on  the  same  joint  of  stem,  as  in  the  Horse- 
chestnut,  Maple  (Fig.  7),  Honeysuckle  (Fig.  132),  Lilac,  &c. ; the 
two  leaves  in  such  cases  being  always  opposite  each  other,  that  is, 
on  exactly  opposite  sides  of  the  stem.  Here  of  course  the  buds 
in  their  axils  are  opposite,  as  we  observe  in  Fig.  48,  where  the 
leaves  have  fallen,  but  their  place  is  shown  by  the  scars.  And  the 
branches  into  which  the  buds  grow  are  likewise  opposite  each  other 
in  pairs. 

49.  Leaves  are  alternate  when  there  is  only  one  from  each  joint  of 
stem,  as  in  the  Oak  (Fig.  22),  Lime-tree,  Poplar,  Buttonwood  (Fig. 
50),  Morning-Glory  (Fig.  8), — not  counting  the  seed-leaves,  which  of 
course  are  opposite,  there  being  a pair  of  them ; also  in  Indian  Corn 
(Fig.  42),  and  Iris  (Fig.  44).  Consequently  the  axillary  buds  are 
also  alternate,  as  in  Hickory  (Fig.  49)  ; and  the  branches  they 
form  alternate,  — making  a different  kind  of  spray  from  the  other 
mode,  — one  branch  shooting  on  the  one  side  of  the  stem  and  the 
next  on  some  other.  For  in  the  alternate  arrangement  no  leaf  is 
on  the  same  side  of  the  stem  as  the  one  next  above  or  next 
below  it. 

50.  Branches,  therefore,  are  arranged  with  symmetry ; and  the 
mode  of  branching  of  the  whole  tree  may  be  foretold  by  a glance  at 
the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  on  the  seedling  or  stem  of  the  first 
year.  This  arrangement  of  the  branches  according  to  that  of  the 
leaves  is  always  plainly  to  be  recognized ; but  the  symmetry  of 
branches  is  rarely  complete.  This  is  owing  to  several  causes  ; 
mainly  to  one,  viz. : — 

51.  It  never  happens  that  all  the  bud&  grow.  If  they  did,  there 
would  be  as  many  branches  in  any  year  as  there  were  leaves  the 
year  before.  And  of  those  which  do  begin  to  grow,  a large  portion 
perish,  sooner  or  later,  for  want  of  nourishment  or  for  want  of  light. 
Those  which  first  begin  to  grow  have  an  advantage,  which  they  are 
apt  to  keep,  taking  to  themselves  the  nourishment  of  the  stem,  and 
starving  the  weaker  buds. 

52.  In  the  Horsechestnut  (Fig.  48),  Hickory  (Fig.  49),  Mag- 
nolia, and  most  other  trees  with  large  scaly  buds,  the  terminal  bud 
is  the  strongest,  and  has  the  advantage  in  growth,  and  next  in 
strength  are  the  upper  axillary  buds : while  the  former  continues 
the  shoot  of  the  last  year,  some  of  the  latter  give  rise  to  branches, 
while  the  rest  fail  to  grow.  In  the  Lilac  also,  the  upper  axillary 
buds  are  stronger  than  the  lower ; but  the  terminal  bud  rarely 


LESSON  4.]  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  25 

appears  at  all ; in  its  place  the  uppermost  pair  of  axillary  buds  grow, 
and  so  each  stem  branches  every  year  into  two ; making  a re- 
peatedly two-forked  ramification. 

53.  In  these  and  many  similar  trees  and  shrubs,  most  of  the  shoots 
make  a definite  annual  growth.  That  is,  each  shoot  of  the  season 
develops  rapidly  from  a strong  bud  in  spring,  — a hud  which  gen- 
erally contains,  already  formed  in  miniature,  all  or  a great  part  of  the 
leaves  and  joints  of  stem  it  is  to  pr6duce,  — makes  its  whole  growth 
in  length  in  the  course  of  a few  weeks,  or  sometimes  even  in  a few 
days,  and  then  forms  and  ripens  its  buds  for  the  next  year’s  similar 
rapid  growth. 

54.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Locust,  Honey-Locust,  Sumac,  and, 
among  smaller  plants,  the  Rose  and  Raspberry,  make  an  indefinite 
annual  growth.  That  is,  their  stems  grow  on  all  summer  long, 
until  stopped  by  the  frosts  of  autumn  or  some  other  cause ; con- 
sequently they  form  and  ripen  no  terminal  bud  protected  by  scales, 
and  the  upper  axillary  buds  are  produced  so  late  in  the  season 
that  they  have  no  time  to  mature,  nor  has  the  wood  time  to  solidify 
and  ripen.  Such  stems  therefore  commonly  die  at  the  top  in  winter, 
or  at  least  all  their  upper  buds  are  small  and  feeble ; and  the  growth 
of  the  succeeding  year  takes  place  mainly  from  the  lower  axillary 
buds,  which  are  more  mature.  Most  of  our  perennial  herbs  grow 
in  this  way,  their  stems  dying  down  to  the  ground  every  year : the 
part  beneath,  however,  is  charged  with  vigorous  buds,  well  pro- 
tected by  the  kindly  covering  of  earth,  ready  for  the  next  year’s 
vegetation. 

55.  In  these  last-mentioned  cases  there  is,  of  course,  no  single 
main  stem,  continued  year  after  year  in  a direct  line,  but  the  trunk 
is  soon  lost  in  the  branches  ; and  when  they  grow  into  trees,  these 
commonly  have  rounded  or  spreading  tops.  Of  such  trees  with 
deliquescent  stems,  — that  is,  with  the  trunk  dissolved,  as  it  were, 
into  the  successively  divided  branches,  the  common  American  Elm 
(Fig.  54)  furnishes  a good  illustration. 

56.  On  the  other  hand,  the  main  stem  of  Pines  and  Spruces,  as 
it  begins  in  the  seedling,  unless  destroyed  by  some  injury,  is  carried 
on  in  a direct  line  throughout  the  whole  growth  of  the  tree,  by  the 
development  year  after  year  of  a terminal  bud : this  forms  a single, 
uninterrupted  shaft,  — an  excurrent  trunk,  which  can  never  be  con- 
founded with  the  branches  that  proceed  from  it.  Of  such  spiry  or 
spire-shaped  trees,  the  Firs  or  Spruces  are  the  most  perfect  and 

3 


26 


GROWTH  OP  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  [LESSON  4. 


familiar  illustrations  (Fig.  54)  ; but  some  other  trees  with  strong 
terminal  buds  exhibit  the  same  character  for  a certain  time,  and 
in  a less  marked  degree. 

57.  Latent  Buds,  Some  of  the  axillary  buds  grow  the  following 
year  into  branches ; but  a larger  number  do  not  (51).  These  do  not 
necessarily  die.  Often  they  survive  in  a latent  state  for  some  years, 
visible  on  the  surface  of  the  branch,  or  are  smaller  and  concealed 
under  the  bark,  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  wood : and  when  at 
any  time  the  other  buds  or  branches  happen  to  be  killed,  these  older 
latent  buds  grow  to  supply  their  place ; — as  is  often  seen  when  the 
foliage  and  young  shoots  of  a tree  are  destroyed  by  insects.  The 
new  shoots  seen  springing  directly  out  of  large  stems  may  sometimes 
originate  from  such  latent  buds,  which  have  preserved  their  life  for 
years.  But  commonly  these  arise  from 

58.  Adventitious  Buds.  These  are  buds  which  certain  shrubs  and 
trees  produce  anywhere  on  the  surface  of  the  wood,  especially  where 
it  has  been  injured.  They  give  rise  to  the  slender  twigs  which  often 
feather  so  beautifully  the  sides  of  great  branches  or  trunks  of  our 
American  Elms.  They  sometimes  form  on  the  root,  which  naturally 
is  destitute  of  buds  ; and  they  are  sure  to  appear  on  the  trunks  and 
roots  of  Willows,  Poplars,  and  Chestnuts,  when  these  are  wounded 
or  mutilated.  Indeed  Osier-Willows  are  pollarded , or  cut  off,  from 
time  to  time,  by  the  cultivator,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a crop  of 
slender  adventitious  twigs,  suitable  for  basket-work.  Such  branches, 
being  altogether  irregular,  of  course  interfere  with  the  natural  sym- 
metry of  the  tree  (50).  Another  cause  of  irregularity,  in  certain 
trees  and  shrubs,  is  the  formation  of  what  are  called 

59.  Accessory  or  Supernumerary  Buds,  There  are  cases  where  two, 

three,  or  more  buds  spring  from  the 
axil  of  a leaf,  instead  of  the  single 
one  which  is  ordinarily  found  there. 
Sometimes  they  are  placed  one  over 
the  other,  as  in  the  Aristolochia  or 
Pipe-Vine,  and  in  the  Tartarian 
Honeysuckle  (Fig.  51)  ; also  in  the 
Honey-Locust,  and  in  the  Walnut  and 
Butternut  (Fig.  52),  where  the  upper  supernumerary  bud  is  a good 
way  out  of  the  axil  and  above  the  others.  And  this  is  here  stronger 


FIG.  51.  Tartarian  Honeysuckle,  with  three  accessory  buds  in  one  axil. 


LESSON  4.]  GROWTH  OF  PLANTS  FROM  BUDS.  27 

than  the  others,  and  grows  into  a branch  which  is  considerably  out  of 
the  axil,  while  the  lower  and  smaller  ones  commonly  do  not  grow  at 
all.  In  other  cases  the  three  buds  stand  side  by  side 
in  the  axil,  as  in  the  Hawthorn,  and  the  Red  Maple 
(Fig.  53).  If  these  were  all  to  grow  into  branches, 
they  would  stifle  or  jostle  each  other.  But  some 
of  them  are  commonly  flower-buds : in 
the  Red  Maple,  only  the  middle  one  is 
a leaf-bud,  and  it  does  not  grow  until 
after  those  on  each  side  of  it  have  ex- 
panded the  blossoms  they  contain. 

60.  Sorts  Of  Buds.  It  may  be  useful 
to  enumerate  the  kinds  of  buds  which 
have  now  been  mentioned,  referring 
back  to  the  paragraphs  in  which  the  pe- 
culiarities of  each  are  explained.  Buds, 
then,  are  either  terminal  or  lateral. 

They  are 

Terminal  when  they  rest  on  the  apex 
of  a stem  (42).  The  earliest  terminal 
bud  is  the  plumule  of  the  embryo  (16). 

Lateral , when  they  appear  on  the 
side  of  a stem : — of  which  the  only 
regular  kind  is  the 

Axillary  (43),  namely,  those  which  are  situated  in 
the  axils  of  leaves. 

Accessory  or  Supernumerary  (59),  when  two  or  more 
occur  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  axillary  bud.  53 

Adventitious  (58),  when  they  occur  out  of  the  axils  and  without 
order,  on  stems  or  roots,  or  even  on  leaves.  Any  of  these  kinds 
may  be,  either 

Naked , when  without  coverings;  or  scaly , when  protected  by 
scales  (44,  45). 

Latent , when  they  survive  long  without  growing,  and  commonly 
without  being  visible  externally  (57). 

Leaf -buds,  when  they  contain  leaves,  and  develop  into  a leafy 
shoot. 

Flower-buds , when  they  contain  blossoms,  and  no  leaves,  as  the 

FIG.  52.  Butternut  branch,  with  accessory  buds,  the  uppermost  above  the  axil. 

FIG.  53.  Red-Maple  branch,  with  accessory  buds  placed  side  by  side. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


28 


[lesson  5. 


side-buds  of  the  Red-Maple,  or  when  they  are  undeveloped  blossoms. 
These  we  shall  have  to  consider  hereafter. 

Figure  54  represents  a spreading-topped  tree  (American  Elm), 
the  stem  dividing  off  into  branches  ; and  some  spiry  trees  (Spruces 
on  the  right  hand,  and  two  of  the  Arbor-Yitse  on  the  left)  with  ex- 
current stems. 


LESSON  V. 

morphology  (i.e.  various  sorts  and  forms)  of  roots. 

61.  Morphology,  as  the  name  (derived  from  two  Greek  words) 
denotes,  is  the  doctrine  of  forms.  In  treating  of  forms  in  plants,  the 
botanist  is  not  confined  to  an  enumeration  or  description  of  the 
shapes  or  sorts  that  occur,  — which  would  be  a dull  and  tedious 
business,  — but  he  endeavors  to  bring  to  view  the  relations  between 
one  form,  and  another  ; and  this  is  an  interesting  study. 

62.  Botanists  give  particular  names  to  all  the  parts  of  plants,  and 
also  particular  terms  to  express  their  principal  varieties  in  form. 
They  use  these  terms  with  great  precision  and  advantage  in  describ- 
ing the  species  or  kinds  of  plants.  They  must  therefore  be  defined 
and  explained  in  our  books.  But  it  would  be  a great  waste  of  time 


LESSON  5.] 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


29 


for  the  young  student  to  learn  them  by  rote.  The  student  should 
rather  consider  the  connection  between  one  form  and  another ; and 
notice  how  the  one  simple  plan  of  the  plant,  as  it  has  already  been 
illustrated,  is  worked  out  in  the  greatest  variety  of  ways,  through  the 
manifold  diversity  of  forms  which  each  of  its  three  organs  of  vege- 
tation — root,  stem,  and  leaf  — is  made  to  assume. 

63.  This  we  are  now  ready  to  do.  That  is,  having  obtained  a 
g neral  idea  of  vegetation,  by  tracing  the  plant  from  the  seed  and 
the  bud  into  the  herb,  shrub,  or  tree,  we  proceed  to  contemplate  the 
principal  forms  under  which  these  three  organs  occur  in  different 
plants,  or  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant ; or,  in  other  words,  to 
study  the  morphology  of  the  root,  stem,  and  leaves. 

64.  Of  these  three  organs,  the  root  is  the  simplest  and  the  least 
varied  in  its  modifications.  Still  it  exhibits  some  widely  different 
kinds.  Going  back  to  the  beginning,  we  commence  with 

65.  The  simple  Primary  Root,  which  most  plants  send  down  from 
the  root-end  of  the  embryo  as  it  grows  from  the  seed ; as  we  have 
seen  in  the  Maple  (Fig.  5-7),  Morning-Glory  (Fig.  8 and  28), 
Beech  (Fig.  14,  15),  Oak  and  Buckeye  (Fig.  22-24),  &c.  This, 
if  it  goes  on  to  grow,  makes  a main  or  tap  root,  from  which  side- 
branches  here  and  there  proceed.  Some  plants  keep  this  main  root 
throughout  their  whole  life,  and  send  off  only  small  side  branches ; 
as  in  the  Carrot  (Fig.  58)  and  Radish  (Fig.  59)  : and  in  some  trees, 
like  the  Oak,  it  takes  the  lead  of  the  side-branches  for  many  years, 
unless  accidentally  injured,  as  a strong  tap-root.  But  commonly 
the  main  root  divides  off  very  soon,  and  is  lost  in  the  branches. 
We  have  already  seen,  also,  that  there  may  be  at  the  beginning 

66.  Multiple  Primary  Roots.  We  have  noticed  them  in  the  Pump- 
kin (Fig.  10),  in  the  Pea  (Fig.  20),  and  in  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  42). 
That  is,  several  roots  have  started  all  at  once,  or  nearly  so,  from  the 
seedling  stem,  and  formed  a bundle  or  cluster  (a  fascicled  root,  as 
it  is  called),  in  place  of  one  main  root.  The  Bean,  as  we  observe 
in  Fig.  18,  begins  with  a main  root ; but  some  of  its  branches  soon 
overtake  it,  and  a cluster  of  roots  is  formed. 

67.  Absorption  Of  Moisture  by  Roots.  The  branches  of  roots  as  they 
grow  commonly  branch  again  and  again,  into  smaller  roots  or  rootlets  ; 
in  this  way  very  much  increasing  the  surface  by  which  the  plant 
connects  itself  with  the  earth,  and  absorbs  moisture  from  it.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  root  absorbs,  so  long  as  it  is  fresh  and  new ; 
and  the  newer  the  roots  and  rootlets  are,  the  more  freely  do  they 

3 * 


30  MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS.  [LESSON  5. 

imbibe.  Accordingly,  as  long  as  the  plant  grows  above  ground,  and 
expands  fresh  foliage,  from  which  moisture  much  of  the  time  largely 
escapes  into  the  air,  so  long  it  continues  to  extend  and  multiply  its 
roots  in  the  soil  beneath,  renewing  and  increasing  the  fresh  surface 
for  absorbing  moisture,  in  proportion  to  the  demand  from  above. 
And  when  growth  ceases  above  ground,  and  the  leaves  die  and  fall, 
or  no  longer  act,  then  the  roots  generally  stop  growing,  and  their 
soft  and  tender  tips  harden.  From  this  period,  therefore,  until 
growth  begins  anew  the  next  spring,  is  the  best  time  for  transplant- 
ing ; especially  for  trees  and  shrubs,  and  herbs  so  large  that  they 
cannot  well  be  removed  without  injuring  the  roots  very  much. 

68.  We  see,  on  considering  a moment,  that  an  herb  or  a tree 
consists  of  two  great  surfaces,  with  a narrow  part  or  trunk  between 
them,  — one  surface  spread  out  in  the  air,  and  the  other  in  the  soil. 
These  two  surfaces  bear  a certain  proportion  to  each  other ; and  the 

upper  draws  largely  on  the  lower  for 
moisture.  Now,  when  the  leaves  fall 
from  the  tree  in  autumn,  the  vast  sur- 
face exposed  to  the  air  is  reduced  to  a 
very  small  part  of  what  it  was  before  ; 
and  the  remainder,  being  covered  with 
a firm  bark,  cannot  lose  much  by  evap- 
oration. In  common  herbs  the  whole 
surface  above  ground  perishes  in  au- 
tumn ; and  many  of  the  rootlets  die  at 
the  same  time,  or  soon  afterwards. 
So  that  the  living  vegetable  is  reduced 
for  the  time  to  the  smallest  compass, 
— to  the  thousandth  or  hundred-thou- 
sandth part  of  what  it  was  shortly 
before,  — and  what  remains  alive  rests 
in  a dormant  state,  and  may  now  be 
transplanted  without  much  danger  of 
harm.  If  any  should  doubt  whether 
there  is  so  great  a difference  between 
the  summer  and  the  winter  size  of 
plants,  let  them  compare  a lily-bulb 
with  the  full-grown  Lily,  or  calculate  the  surface  of  foliage  which 

FIG.  55.  Seedling  Maple,  of  the  natural  size,  showing  the  root-hairs.  56.  A bit  of  the 
end  of  the  root  magnified. 


LESSON  5.] 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


31 


a tree  exposes  to  the  air,  as  compared  with  the  surface  of  its 
twigs. 

69.  The  absorbing  surface  of  roots  is  very  much  greater  than 
it  appears  to  be,  on  account  of  the  root-hairs, 
or  slender  fibrils,  which  abound  on  the  fresh  and 
new  parts  of  roots.  These  may  be  seen  with 
an  ordinary  magnifying-glass,  or  even  by  the 
naked  eye  in  many  cases ; as  in  the  root  of  a 
seedling  Maple  (Fig.  55),  where  the  surface  is 
thickly  clothed  with  them.  They  are  not  root- 
lets of  a smaller  sort ; but,  when  more  magnified, 
are  seen  to  be  mere  elongations  of  the  surface 
of  the  root  into  slender  tubes,  wrhich  through 
their  very  delicate  walls  imbibe  moisture  from 
the  soil  with  great  avidity.  They  are  com- 
' monly  much  longer  than  those  shown  in  Fig. 

56,  which  represents  only  the  very  tip  of  a root 
moderately  magnified.  Small  as  they  are  indi- 
vidually, yet  the  whole  amount  of  absorbing 
surface  added  to  the  rootlets  by  the  countless 
numbers  of  these  tiny  tubes  is  very  great. 

70.  Roots  intend- 
ed mainly  for  ab- 
sorbing branch  free- 
ly, and  are  slender 
or  thread-like.  When  the  root  is  prin- 
cipally of  this  character  it  is  said  to  be 
fibrous;  as  in  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  42), 
and  other  grain,  and  to  some  extent  in 
all  annual  plants  (41). 

71.  The  Root  as  a Storehouse  of  Food. 
In  biennial  and  many  perennial  herbs 
(41),  the  root  answers  an  additional 
purpose.  In  the  course  of  the  season  it 
becomes  a storehouse  of  nourishment, 
and  enlarges  or  thickens  as  it  receives 
the  accumulation.  Such  roots  are  said 

to  be  fieshy  ; and  different  names  are  applied  to  them  according  to 

FIG.  57,  58,  59.  Forms  of  fleshy  or  thickened  roots. 


32 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


[LESSON  5. 


their  shapes.  We  may  divide  them  all  into  two  kinds ; 1st,  those 
consisting  of  one  main  root,  and  2d,  those  without  any  main  root. 

72.  The  first  are  merely  different  shapes  of  the  tap-root ; which  is 
Conical , when  it  thickens  most  at  the  crown,  or  where  it  joins 
the  stem,  and  tapers  regularly  downwards  to  a point,  as  in  the 
Common  Beet,  the  Parsnip,  and  Carrot  (Fig.  58)  : 

Turnip-shaped  or  napiform,  when  greatly  thickened  above ; but 
abruptly  becoming  slender  below ; as  the  Turnip  (Fig.  57)  : and, 
Spindle-shaped , or  fusiform,  when  thickest  in  the  middle  and 
tapering  to  both  ends ; as  the  common  Radish  (Fig.  59). 

73.  In  the  second  kind,  where  there 
is  no  main  root,  the  store  of  nourishing 
matter  may  be  distributed  throughout 
the  branches  or  cluster  of  roots  gener- 
ally, or  it  may  be  accumulated  in  some 
of  them,  as  we  see  in  the  tuberous  roots  ' 
of  the  Sweet  Potato,  the  common  Peony, 
and  the  Dahlia  (Fig.  60). 

74.  All  but  the  last  of  these  illustra- 
trations  are  taken  from  biennial  plants. 
These  grow  with  a large  tuft  of  leaves 
next  the  ground,  and  accumulate  nour- 
ishment all  the  first  summer,  and  store 
up  all  they  produce  beyond  what  is 
wanted  at  the  time  in  their  great  root, 
which  lives  over  the  winter.  We  know 

very  well  what  use  man  and  other  animals  make  of  this  store  of  food, 
in  the  form  of  starch,  sugar,  jelly,  and  the  like.  From  the  second 
year’s  growth  we  may  learn  what  use  the  plant  itself  makes  of  it. 
The  new  shoots  then  feed  upon  it,  and  use  it  to  form  with  great 
rapidity  branches,  flower-stalks,  blossoms,  fruit,  and  seed ; and,  having 
used  it  up,  the  whole  plant  dies  when  the  seeds  have  ripened. 

75.  In  the  same  way  the  nourishment  contained  in  the  separate 
tuberous  roots  of  the  Sweet  Potato  and  the  Dahlia  (Fig.  60)  is  fed 
upon  in  the  spring  by  the  buds  of  the  stem  they  belong  to ; and 
as  they  are  emptied  of  their  contents,  they  likewise  die  and  decay. 
But  meanwhile  similar  stores  of  nourishment,  produced  by  the  second 
year’s  vegetation,  are  deposited  in  new  roots,  which  live  through  the 

FIG.  60.  Clustered  tuberous  roots  of  the  Dahlia,  with  the  bottom  of  the  stem  they 
belong  to. 


LESSON  5.] 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


33 


next  winter,  and  sustain  the  third  spring’s  growth,  and  so  on  ; — 
these  plants  being  'perennial  (41),  or  lasting  year  after  year,  though 
each  particular  root  lives  little  more  than  one  year. 

76.  Many  things  which  commonly  pass  for  roots  are  not  really 
roots  at  all.  Common  potatoes  are  tuberous  parts  of  stems,  while 
sweet  potatoes  are  roots,  like  those  of  the  Dahlia  (Fig.  60).  The  dif- 
ference between  them  will  more  plainly  appear  in  the  next  Lesson. 

77.  Secondary  Roots.  So  far  we  have  considered  only  the  original 
or  primary  root,  — that  which  proceeded  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
first  joint  of  stem  in  the  plantlet  springing  from  the  seed,  — and  its 
subdivisions.  We  may  now  remark,  that  any  other  part  of  the  stem 
will  produce  roots  just  as  well,  whenever  favorably  situated  for  it ; 
that  is,  when  covered  by  the  soil,  which  provides  the  darkness  and 
the  moisture  which  is  congenial  to  them.  For  these  secondary  roots, 
as  they  may  be  called,  partake  of  the  ordinary  disposition  of  the 
organ : they  avoid  the  light,  and  seek  to  bury  themselves  in  the 
ground.  In  Indian  Corn  we  see  roots  early  striking  from  the  second 
and  the  succeeding  joints  of  stem  under  ground,  more  abundantly 
than  from  the  first  joint  (Fig.  42).  And  all  stems  that  keep  up  a 
connection  with  the  soil  — such  as  those  which  creep  along  on  or 
beneath  its  surface  — are  sure  to  strike  root  from  almost  every  joint. 
So  will  most  branches  when  bent  to  the  ground,  and  covered  with 
the  soil : and  even  cuttings  from  the  branches  of  most  plants  can  be 
made  to  do  so,  if  properly  managed.  Propagation  by  buds  depends 
upon  this.  That  is,  a piece  of  a plant  which  has  stem  and  leaves, 
either  developed  or  in  the  bud,  may  be  made  to  produce  roots,  and 
so  become  an  independent  plant. 

78.  In  many  plants  the  disposition  to  strike  root  is  so  strong,  that 
they  even  will  spring  from  the  stem  above  ground.  In  Indian  Corn, 
for  example,  it  is  well  known  that  roots  grow,  not  only  from  all  those 
joints  round  which  the  earth  is  heaped  in  hoeing,  but  also  from  those 
several  inches  above  the  soil : and  other  plants  produce  them  from 
stems  or  branches  high  in  the  air.  Such  roots  are  called 

v/  79.  Aerial  Roots.  All  the  most  striking  examples  of  these  are  met 
with,  as  we  might  expect,  in  warmer  and  damper  climates  than  ours, 
and  especially  in  deep  forests  which  shut  out  much  of  the  light ; this 
being  unfavorable  to  roots.  The  Mangrove  of  tropical  shores,  which 
occurs  on  our  own  southern  borders ; the  Sugar  Cane,  from  which 
roots  strike  just  as  in  Indian  Corn,  only  from  higher  up  the  stem ; 
the  Pandanus,  called  Screw  Pine  (not  from  its  resemblance  to  a 


34 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS 


[lesson  5. 


Pine-tree,  but  because  it  is  like  a Pine-apple  plant)  ; and  the  famous 
Banyan  of  India,  and  some  other  Fig-trees,  furnish  the  most  remark- 
able examples  of  roots,  which  strike  from  the  stem  or  the  branches 
in  the  open  air,  and  at  length  reach  the  ground,  and  bury  them- 
selves, when  they  act  in  the  same  manner  as  ordinary  roots. 

80.  Some  of  our  own  common  plants,  however,  produce  small 
aerial  rootlets  ; not  for  absorbing  nourishment,  but  for  climbing.  By 
these  rootlets,  that  shoot  out  abundantly  from  the  side  of  the  stems 
and  branches,  the  Trumpet  Creeper,  the  Ivy  of  Europe,  and  our 
Poison  R/hus,  — here  called  Poison  Ivy,  — fasten  themselves  firmly 
to  walls,  or  the  trunks  of  trees,  often  ascending  to  a great  height. 
Here  roots  serve  the  same  purpose  that  tendrils  do  in  the  Grape- 
Vine  and  Virginia  Creeper.  Another  form,  and  the  most  aerial  of 
all  roots,  since  they  never  reach  the  ground,  are  those  of 

81.  Epiphytes,  or  Air-Plants.  These  are  called  by  the  first  name 
(which  means  growing  on  plants),  because  they  are  generally  found 
upon  the  trunks  and  branches  of  trees  ; — not  that  they  draw  any 
nourishment  from  them,  for  their  roots  merely  adhere  to  the  bark, 
and  they  flourish  just  as  well  upon  dead  wood  or  any  other  con- 
venient support.  They  are  called  air-plants  because  they  really 
live  altogether  upon  what  they  get  from  the  air,  as  they  have  no 
connection  with  the  soil.  Hundreds  of  air-plants  grow  all  around 
us  without  attracting  any  attention,  because  they  are  small  or  hum- 
ble. Such  are  the  Lichens  and  Mosses  that  abound  on  the  trunks 
or  boughs  of  trees,  especially  on  the  shaded  side,  and  on  old  walls, 
fences,  or  rocks,  from  which  they  obtain  no  nourishment.  But  this 
name  is  commonly  applied  only  to  the  larger,  flower-bearing  plants 
which  live  in  this  way.  These  belong  to  warm  and  damp  parts  of 
the  world,  where  there  is  always  plenty  of  moisture  in  the  air.  The 
greater  part  belong  to  the  Orchis  family  and  to  the  Pine- Apple 
family ; and  among  them  are  some  of  the  handsomest  flowers  known. 
We  have  two  or  three  flowering  air-plants  in  the  Southern  States, 
though  they  are  not  showy  ones.  One  of  them  is  an  Epidendrum 
growing  on  the  boughs  of  the  Great-flowered  Magnolia : another  is 
the  Long-Moss,  or  Black  Moss,  so  called,  — although  it  is  no  Moss 
at  all,  — which  hangs  from  the  branches  of  Oaks  and  Pines  in  all 
the  warm  parts  of  the  Southern  States.  (Fig  61  represents  both 
of  these.  The  upper  is  the  Epidendrum  conopseum ; the  lower,  the 
Black  Moss,  Tillandsia  usneoides.) 

82.  Parasitic  Plants  exhibit  roots  under  yet  another  remarkable 


LESSON  5.] 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  ROOTS. 


85 


aspect.  For  these  are  not  merely  fixed  upon  other  plants,  as  air- 
plants  are,  but  strike  their  roots,  or  what  answer  to  roots,  into  them, 
and  feed  on  their  juices.  Not  only  Moulds  and  Blights  (which  are 
plants  of  very  low  organization)  live  in  this  predacious  way,  but 
many  flowering  herbs,  and  even  shrubs.  One  of  the  latter  is  the 
Mistletoe,  the  seed  of  which  germinates  on  the  bough  of  the  tree 
where  it  falls  or  is  left  by  birds ; and  the  forming  root  penetrates  the 
bark  and  engrafts  itself  into  the  wood,  to  which  it  becomes  united  as 
firmly  as  a natural  branch  to  its  parent  stem  ; and  indeed  the  parasite 
lives  just  as  if  it  were  a branch  of  the  tree  it  grows  and  feeds  on. 
A most  common  parasitic  herb  is  the  Dodder;  which  abounds  in 
low  grounds  everywhere  in  summer,  and  coils  its  long  and  slender 
leafless,  yellowish  stems  — resembling  tangled  threads  of  yarn  — 
round  and  round  the  stalks  of  other  plants ; wherever  they  touch 
piercing  the  bark  with  minute  and  very  short  rootlets  in  the  form  of 
suckers,  which  draw  out  the  nourishing  juices  of  the  plants  laid  hold 
of.  Other  parasitic  plants,  like  the  Beech-drops  and  Pine-sap,  fasten 
their  roots  under  ground  upon  the  roots  of  neighboring  plants,  and 
rob  them  of  their  rich  juices. 


61 


86 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


LESSON  VI. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES. 

83.  The  growth  of  the  stem  in  length,  and  the  formation  of 
branches,  have  been  considered  already.  Their  growth  in  thick- 
ness we  may  study  to  more  advantage  in  a later  Lesson.  The  very 
various  forms  which  they  assume  will  now  occupy  our  attention,  — 
beginning  with 

84.  The  Forms  of  Stems  and  Branches  above  ground.  The  principal 
differences  as  regards  size  and  duration  have  been  mentioned  before 
(41) ; namely,  the  obvious  distinction  of  plants  into  herbs,  shrubs, 
and  trees,  which  depends  upon  the  duration  and  size  of  the  stem. 
The  stem  is  accordingly 

Herbaceous , when  it  dies  down  to  the  ground  every  year,  or  after 
blossoming. 

Suffrutescent , when  the  bottom  of  the  stem  above  the  soil  is  a 
little  woody,  and  inclined  to  live  from  year  to  year. 

Suffruticose , when  low  stems  are  decidedly  woody  below,  but 
herbaceous  above. 

Fruticose,  or  shrubby,  when  woody,  living  from  year  to  year,  and 
of  considerable  size,  — not,  however,  more  than  three  or  four  times 
the  height  of  a man. 

Arborescent,  when  tree-like  in  appearance,  or  approaching  a tree 
in  size. 

Arboreous,  when  forming  a proper  tree  trunk. 

85.  When  the  stem  or  branches  rise  above  ground  and  are  ap- 
parent to  view,  the  plant  is  said  to  be  caulescent  (that  is,  to  have  a 
caulis  or  true  stem).  When  there  is  no  evident  stem  above  ground, 
but  only  leaves  or  leaf-stalks  and  flower-stalks,  the  plant  is  said  to 
be  acaulescent,  i.  e.  stemless,  as  in  the  Crocus,  Bloodroot,  common 
Violets,  &c.,  and  in  the  Beet,  Carrot,  and  Radish  (Fig.  59),  for  the 
first  season.  There  is  a stem,  however,  in  all  such  cases,  only  it 
remains  on  or  beneath  the  ground,  and  is  sometimes  very  short. 
Of  course  leaves  and  flowers  do  not  arise  from  the  root.  These 
concealed  sorts  of  stem  we  will  presently  study. 

86.  The  direction  taken  by  stems,  &c.,  or  their  mode  of  growth, 


LESSON  6.]  SUCKERS,  STOLONS,  AND  OFFSETS. 


37 


gives  rise  to  several  terms,  which  may  be  briefly  mentioned : — 
such  as 

Diffuse , when  loosely  spreading  in  all  directions. 

Declined , when  turned  or  bending  over  to  one  side. 

Decumbent , reclining  on  the  ground,  as  if  too  weak  to  stand. 

Assurgent  or  ascending , when  rising  obliquely  upwards. 

Procumbent  or  prostrate , lying  flat  on  the  ground  from  the  first. 

Creeping , or  repent , when  prostrate  stems  on  or  just  beneath  the 
ground  strike  root  as  they  grow ; as  does  the  White  Clover,  the 
little  Partridge-berry,  &c. 

Climbing , or  scandent,  when  stems  rise  by  clinging  to  other  ob- 
jects for  support,  — whether  by  tendrils , as  do  the  Pea,  Grape- 
Vine,  and  Virginia  Creeper  (Fig.  62) ; by  their  twisting  leaf-stalks, 
as  the  Virgin’s  Bower ; or  by  rootlets,  like  the  Ivy,  Poison  Ivy,  and 
Trumpet  Creeper  (80). 

Twining , or  voluble , when  stems  rise  by  coiling  themselves  spirally 
around  other  stems  or  supports ; like  the  Morning-Glory  and  the  Bean. 

87.  Certain  forms  of  stems  have  received  distinct  names.  The 
jointed  stem  of  Grasses  and  Sedges  is  called  by  botanists  a culm ; 
and  the  peculiar  scaly  trunk  of  Palms  and  the  like  (Fig.  47)  is 
sometimes  called  a caudex.  A few  forms  of  branches  the  gardener 
distinguishes  by  particular  names ; and  they  are  interesting  from 
their  serving  for  the  natural  propagation  of  plants  from  buds,  and 
for  suggesting  ways  by  which  we  artificially  multiply  plants  that 
would  not  propagate  themselves  without  the  gardener’s  aid.  These 
are  suckers , offsets , stolons , and  runners. 

88.  Slickers  are  ascending  branches  rising  from  stems  under  ground, 
such  as  are  produced  so  abundantly  by  the  Rose,  Raspberry,  and 
other  plants  said  to  multiply  “ by  the  root.”  If  we  uncover  them, 
we  see  at  once  the  great  difference  between  these  subterranean 
branches  and  real  roots.  They  are  only  creeping  branches  under 
ground.  Remarking  how  the  upright  shoots  from  these  branches 
become  separate  plants,  simply  by  the  dying  off  of  the  connecting 
under-ground  stems,  the  gardener  expedites  the  result  by  cutting 
them  through  with  his  spade.  That  is,  he  propagates  the  plant  “ by 
division.” 

89.  Stolons  are  trailing  or  reclining  branches  above  ground,  which 
strike  root  where  they  touch  the  soil,  and  then  send  up  a vigorous 
shoot,  which  has  roots  of  its  own,  and  becomes  an  independent  plant 
when  the  connecting  part  dies,  as  it  does  after  a while.  The  Currant 

4 


38 


MORPHOLOGY  OP  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


and  the  Gooseberry  naturally  multiply  in  this  way,  as  well  as  by 
suckers  (which  we  see  are  just  the  same  thing,  only  the  connecting 
part  is  concealed  under  ground).  They  must  have  suggested  the 
operation  of  layering , or  bending  down  and  covering  with  earth 
branches  which  do  not  naturally  make  stolons  ; and  after  they  have 
taken  root,  as  they  almost  always  will,  the  gardener  cuts  through 
the  connecting  stem,  and  so  converts  a rooting  branch  into  a sepa- 
rate plant. 

90.  Offsets,  like  those  of  the  Houseleek,  are  only  short  stolons, 
with  a crown  of  leaves  at  the  end. 

91.  Runners,  of  which  the  Strawberry  presents  the  most  familiar 
example,  are  a long  and  slender,  tendril-like,  leafless  form  of  creep- 
ing branches.  Each  runner,  after  having  grown  to  its  full  length, 
strikes  root  from  the  tip,  and  fixes  it  to  the  ground,  then  forms  a bud 
there,  which  develops  into  a tuft  of  leaves,  and  so  gives  rise  to  a new 
plant,  which  sends  out  new  runners  to  act  in  the  same  way.  In  this 
manner  a single  Strawberry  plant  will  spread  over  a large  space,  or 
produce  a great  number  of  plants,  in  the  course  of  the  summer ; — all 
connected  at  first  by  the  slender  runners ; but  these  die  in  the 
following  winter,  if  not  before,  and  leave  the  plants  as  so  many 
separate  individuals. 

92.  Tendrils  are  branches  of  a very  slender  sort,  like  runners,  not 
destined  like  them  for  propagation,  and  therefore  always  destitute 


of  buds  or  leaves,  but  intended  for  climbing.  Those  of  the  Grape- 
Vine,  of  the  Virginia  Creeper  (Fig.  62),  and  of  the  Cucumber  and 

FIG.  62.  Piece  of  the  stem  of  Virginia  Creeper,  bearing  a leaf  and  a tendril.  63.  Tips 
of  a tendril,  about  the  natural  size,  showing  the  disks  by  which  they  hold  fast  to  walls,  Ac. 


LESSON  6.] 


RUNNERS,  TENDRILS,  SPINES. 


39 


Squash  tribe  are  familiar  illustrations.  The  tendril  commonly  grows 
straight  and  outstretched  until  it  reaches  some  neighboring  support, 
such  as  a stem,  when  its  apex  hooks  around  it  to  secure  a hold ; 
then  the  whole  tendril  shortens  itself  by  coiling  up  spirally,  and  so 
draws  the  shoot  of  the  growing  plant  nearer  to  the  supporting  object. 
When  the  Virginia  Creeper  climbs  the  side  of  a building  or  the 
smooth  bark  of  a tree,  which  the  tendrils  cannot  lay  hold  of  in  the 
usual  way,  their  tips  expand  into  a flat  disk  or  sucker  (Fig.  62,  63), 
which  adheres  very  firmly  to  the  wall  or  bark,  enabling  the  plant  to 
climb  over  and  cover  such  a surface,  as  readily  as  the  Ivy  does  by 
means  of  its  sucker-like  little  rootlets.  The  same  result  is  effected 
by  different  organs,  in  the  one  case  by  branches  in  the  form  of  ten- 
drils ; in  the  other,  by  roots. 

93.  Tendrils,  however,  are  not  always  branches ; some  are  leaves, 
or  parts  of  leaves,  as  those  of  the  Pea  (Fig.  20).  Their  nature  in 
each  case  is  to  be  learned  from  their  position,  whether  it  be  that  of 
a leaf  or  of  a branch.  In  the  same  way 

94.  Spines  or  Thorns  sometimes  represent  leaves,  as  in  the  Bar- 
berry, where  their  nature  is  shown  by  their  situation  outside  of  an 
axillary  bud  or  branch.  In  other  words,  here  they  have  a bud  in 
their  axil,  and  are  therefore  leaves ; so  we  shall  have  to  mention 
them  in  another  place.  Most  commonly  spines  are  stunted  and 
hardened  branches,  arising  from  the  axils  of  leaves,  as  in  the  Haw- 
thorn and  Pear.  A neglected  Pear-tree  or  Plum-tree  shows  every 
gradation  between  ordinary  branches  and  thorns.  Thorns  sometimes 
branch,  their  branches  partaking  of  the  same  spiny  character:  in 
this  way  those  on  the  trunks  of  Honey-Locust  trees  (produced  from 
adventitious  buds,  58)  become  exceedingly  complicated  and  horrid. 
The  thorns  on  young  shoots  of  the  Honey-Locust  may  appear  some- 
what puzzling  at  first  view;  for  they  are  situated  some  distance 
above  the  axil  of  the  leaf.  Here  the  thorn  comes  from  the  upper- 
most of  several  supernumerary  buds  (59).  Prickles , such  as  those 
of  the  Rose  and  Blackberry,  must  not  be  confounded  with  thorns : 
these  have  not  the  nature  of  branches,  and  have  no  connection  with 
the  wood ; but  are  only  growths  of  the  bark.  When  we  strip  off 
the  bark,  the  prickles  go  with  it. 

95.  Still  stranger  forms  of  stems  and  branches  than  any  of  these 
are  met  with  in  some  tribes  of  plants,  such  as  Cactuses  (Fig.  76). 
These  will  be  more  readily  understood  after  we  have  considered 
some  of  the  commoner  forms  of 


40 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


96.  Subterranean  Stems  and  Branches.  These  are  very  numerous 
and  various  ; but  they  are  commonly  overlooked,  or  else  confounded 
with  roots.  From  their  situation  they  are  out  of  the  sight  of  the 
superficial  observer : but  if  sought  for  and  examined,  they  will  well 
repay  the  student’s  attention.  For  the  vegetation  that  is  carried  on 
under  ground  is  hardly  less  varied,  and  no  less  interesting  and  im- 
portant, than  that  which  meets  our  view  above  ground.  All  their 
forms  may  be  referred  to  four  principal  kinds  ; namely,  the  Rhizo- 
ma  or  Rootstock , the  Tuber , the  Corm,  and  the  Bulb. 

97.  The  Rootstock,  or  Rhizoma,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  merely  a 
creeping  stem  or  branch  (86)  growing  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  or  partly  covered  by  it.  Of  this  kind  are  the  so-called  creeping , 
running , or  scaly  roots , such  as  those  by  which  the  Mint  (Fig.  64), 
the  Scotch  Rose,  the  Couch-grass  or  Quick-grass,  and  many  other 
plants,  spread  so  rapidly  and  widely,  “by  the  root,”  as  it  is  said. 


That  these  are  really  stems,  and  not  roots,  is  evident  from  the  way 
in  which  they  grow;  from  their  consisting  of  a succession  of  joints; 
and  from  the  leaves  which  they  bear  on  each  joint  (or  node , as 
the  botanist  calls  the  place  from  which  leaves  arise),  in  the  form  of 
small  scales,  just  like  the  lowest  ones  on  the  upright  stem  next  the 
ground.  Like  other  stems,  they  also  produce  buds  in  the  axils  of 
these  scales,  showing  the  scales  to  be  leaves  ; whereas  real  roots 
bear  neither  leaves  nor  axillary  buds.  Placed,  as  they  are,  in  the 
damp  and  dark  soil,  such  stems  naturally  produce  roots,  just  as  the 
creeping  stem  does  where  it  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  ground ; but 
the  whole  appearance  of  these  roots,  their  downward  growth,  and 
their  mode  of  branching,  are  very  different  from  that  of  the  subter- 
ranean stem  they  spring  from. 

98.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  plants  with  these  running  rootstocks  take 
such  rapid  and  wide  possession  of  the  soil,  — often  becoming  great 
pests  to  farmers, — and  why  they  are  so  hard  to  get  rid  of.  They  are 

FIG.  64.  Rootstocks,  or  creeping  subterranean  branches,  of  the  Peppermint. 


LESSON  6.]  SUBTERRANEAN  FORMS  : ROOTSTOCKS. 


41 


always  perennials  (41)  ; the  subterranean  shoots  live  over  the  first 
winter,  if  not  longer,  and  are  provided  with  vigorous  buds  at  every 
joint.  Some  of  these  buds  grow  in  spring  into  upright  stems,  bearing 
foliage,  to  elaborate  the  plant’s  crude  food  into  nourishment,  and  at 
length  produce  blossoms  for  reproduction  by  seed ; while  many  oth- 
ers, fed  by  nourishment  supplied  from  above,  form  a new  generation 
of  subterranean  shoots ; and  this  is  repeated  over  and  over  in  the 
course  of  the  season  or  in  succeeding  years.  Meanwhile  as  the  sub- 
terranean shoots  increase  in  number,  the  older  ones,  connecting  the 
series  of  generations  into  one  body,  die  off  year  by  year,  liberating 
the  already  rooted  side-branches  as  so  many  separate  plants ; and 
so  on  indefinitely.  Cutting  these  running  rootstocks  into  pieces, 
therefore,  by  the  hoe  or  the  plough,  far  from  destroying  the  plant, 
only  accelerates  the  propagation;  it  converts  one  many-branched 
plant  into  a great  number  of  separate  individuals.  Even  if  you 
divide  the  shoots  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  joints  of  stem, 
each  piece  (Fig.  65)  is  already  a plantlet,  with  its  roots  and  with  a 
bud  in  the  axil  of  its  scale-like  leaf  (either  latent  or  apparent),  and 
having  prepared  nourishment  enough  in  the  bit  of 
stem  to  develop  this  bud  into  a leafy  stem  ; and  so 
a single  plant  is  all  the  more  speedily  converted 
into  a multitude.  Such  plants  as  the  Quick- 
grass  accordingly  realize  the  fable  of  the  Hy- 
dra ; as  fast  as  one  of  its  many  branches  is  cut 
off,  twice  as  many,  or  more,  spring  up  in  its  stead.  Whereas,  when 
the  subterranean  parts  are  only  roots,  cutting  away  the  stem  com- 
pletely destroys  the  plant,  except  in  the  rather  rare  cases  where  the 
root  produces  adventitious  buds  (58). 

99.  The  more  nourishment  rootstocks  contain,  the  more  readily  do 
separate  portions,  furnished  with  buds,  become  independent  plants. 
It  is  to  such  underground  stems,  thickened  with  a large  amount  of 
starch,  or  some  similar  nourishing  matter  stored  up  in  their  tissue, 
that  the  name  of  rhizoma  or  rootstock  is  commonly  applied  ; — such, 
for  example,  as  those  of  the  Sweet  Flag  or  Calamus,  of  Ginger,  of  Iris 
or  Flower-de-luce  (Fig.  133),  and  of  the  Solomon’s  Seal  (Fig.  66). 

100.  The  rootstocks  of  the  common  sorts  of  Iris  of  the  gardens 
usually  lie  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  partly  uncovered ; and 
they  bear  real  leaves  (Fig.  133),  which  closely  overlap  each  other ; 

FTG.  65.  A piece  of  the  running  rootstock  of  the  Peppermint,  with  its  node  or  joint,  and 
an  axillary  bud  ready  to  grow. 

4 * 


42 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


the  joints  (i.  e.  the  internodes , or  spaces  between  each  leaf)  being 
very  short.  As  the  leaves  die,  year  by  year,  and  decay,  a scar 
left  in  the  form  of  a ring  marks  the  place  where  each  leaf  was 
attached.  Instead  of  leaves,  rootstocks  buried  under  ground  com- 
monly bear  scales,  like  those  of  the  Mint  (Fig.  64),  which  are  im- 
perfect leaves. 


66 

101.  Some  rootstocks  are  marked  with  large  round  scars  of  a 
different  sort,  like  those  of  the  Solomon’s  Seal  (Fig.  66),  which  gave 
this  name  to  the  plant,  from  their  looking  something  like  the  impres- 
sion of  a seal  upon  wax.  Here  the  rootstock  sends  up  every  spring 
an  herbaceous  stalk  or  stem,  which  bears  the  foliage  and  flowers, 
and  dies  in  autumn  ; and  the  seal  is  the  circular  scar  left  by  the 
death  and  separation  of  the  dead  stalk  from  the  living  rootstock. 
As  but  one  of  these  is  formed  each  year,  they  mark  the  limits  of  a 
year’s  growth.  The  bud  at  the  end  of  the  rootstock  in  the  figure, 
which  was  taken  in  summer,  will  grow  the  next  spring  into  the  stalk 
of  the  season,  which,  dying  in  autumn,  will  leave  a similar  scar,  while 
another  bud  will  be  formed  farther  on,  crowning  the  ever-advancing 
summit  or  growing  end  of  the  stem. 

102.  As  each  year’s  growth  of  stem,  in  all 
these  cases,  makes  its  own  roots,  it  soon  becomes 
independent  of  the  older  parts.  And  after  a 
certain  age,  a portion  dies  off  behind,  every 
year,  about  as  fast  as  it  increases  at  the  grow- 
ing end  ; — death  following  life  with  equal  and 
certain  step,  with  only  a narrow  interval  be- 
tween. In  vigorous  plants  of  Solomon’s  Seal 
or  Iris,  the  living  rootstock  is  several  inches  or 
a foot  in  length ; while  in  the  short  rootstock  of 

FIG.  66.  Rootstock  of  Solomon’s  Seal,  with  the  bottom  of  the  stalk  of  the  season,  and  the 
bud  for  the  next  year’s  growth. 

FIG.  67.  The  very  short  rootstock  and  bud  of  a Trillium  or  Birthroot. 


LESSON  6.] 


SUBTERRANEAN  FORMS  : TUBERS. 


43 


Trillium  or  Birthroot  (Fig.  67)  life  is  reduced  to  a very  narrow 
span,  only  an  inch  or  less  intervening  between  death  beneath  and 
young  life  in  the  strong  bud  annually  renewed  at  the  summit. 

103.  A Tuber  is  a thickened  portion  of  a rootstock.  When  slender 
subterranean  branches,  like  those  of  the  Quick-grass  or  Mint  (Fig. 
64),  become  enlarged  at  the  growing  end  by  the  accumulation  there 
of  an  abundance  of  solid  nourishing  matter,  tubers  are  produced,  like 
those  of  the  Nut-grass  of  the  Southern  States  (which  accordingly  be- 
comes a greater  pest  even  than  the  Quick-grass),  and  of  the  Jerusalem 
Artichoke,  and  the  Potato.  The  whole  formation  may  be  seen  at  a 
glance  in  Figure  68,  which  represents  the  subterranean  growth  of  a 
Potato-plant,  and  shows  the  tubers  in  all  their  stages,  from  shoots 
just  beginning  to  enlarge  at  the  tip,  up  to  fully-formed  potatoes. 
And  Fig.  69,  — one  of  the  forming  tubers  moderately  magnified, — 
plainly  shows  the  leaves  of  this  thickening  shoot,  in  the  form  of  little 
scales.  It  is  under  these  scales  that  the  eyes  appear  (Fig.  70)  : 
and  these  are  evidently  axillary  buds  (43). 


69  68  70 


104.  Let  us  glance  for  a moment  at  the  economy  or  mode  of  life 
of  the  Potato-plant,  and  similar  vegetables,  as  shown  in  the  mor- 

FIG,  68.  Forming  tubers  of  the  Potato.  69.  One  of  the  very  young  potatoes,  moderately 
magnified.  70.  Slice  of  a portion  through  an  eye,  more  magnified. 


44  MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 

phology  of  the  branches,  — that  is,  in  the  different  forms  they  appear 
under,  and  the  purposes  they  serve.  The  Potato-plant  has  three 
principal  forms  of  branches  : — 1.  Those  that  bear  ordinary  leaves, 
expanded  in  the  air,  to  digest  what  they  gather  from  it  and  what 
the  roots  gather  from  the  soil,  and  convert  it  into  nourishment. 
2.  After  a while  a second  set  of  branches  at  the  summit  of  the 
plant  bear  flowers,  which  form  fruit  and  seed  out  of  a portion  of  the 
nourishment  which  the  leaves  have  prepared.  3.  But  a larger  part 
of  this  nourishment,  while  in  a liquid  state,  is  carried  down  the  stem, 
into  a third  sort  of  branches  under  ground,  and  accumulated  in  the 
form  of  starch  at  their  extremities,  which  become  tubers,  or  deposi- 
tories of  prepared  solid  food; — just  as  in  the  Turnip,  Carrot, 
Dahlia,  &c.  (Fig.  57-60),  it  is  deposited  in  the  root.  The  use 
of  the  store  of  food  is  obvious  enough.  In  the  autumn  the  whole 
plant  dies,  except  the  seeds  (if  it  formed  them)  and  the  tubers ; and 
the  latter  are  left  disconnected  in  the  ground.  Just  as  that  small 
portion  of  nourishing  matter  which  is  deposited  in  the  seed  (3,  and 
Fig.  34)  feeds  the  embryo  when  it  germinates,  so  the  much  larger 
portion  deposited  in  the  tuber  nourishes  its  buds,  or  eyes,  when  they 
likewise  grow,  the  next  spring,  into  new  plants.  And  the  great 
supply  enables  them  to  shoot  with  a greater  vigor  at  the  beginning, 
and  to  produce  a greater  amount  of  vegetation  than  the  seedling 
plant  could  do  in  the  same  space  of  time ; which  vegetation  in  turn 
may  prepare  and  store  up,  in  the  course  of  a few  weeks  or  months, 
the  largest  quantity  of  solid  nourishing  material,  in  a form  most 
available  for  food.  Taking  advantage  of  this,  man  has  transported 
the  Potato  from  the  cool  Andes  of  South  America  to  other  cool  cli- 
mates, and  makes  it  yield  him  a copious  supply  of  food,  especially  in 
countries  where  the  season  is  too  short,  or  the  summer’s  heat  too 
little,  for  profitably  cultivating  the  principal  grain-plants. 

105.  All  the  sorts  of  subterranean  stems  or  branches  distinguished 
by  botanists  pass  into  one  another  by  gradations.  We  have  seen 
how  nearly  related  the  tuber  is  to  the  rootstock,  and  there  are  many 
cases  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is  the  proper  name  to  use. 
So  likewise, 

106.  Ths  Corm,  or  Solid  Bulb,  like  that  of  the  Indian  Turnip  and 
the  Crocus  (Fig.  71),  is  just  a very  short  and  thick  rootstock;  as 
will  be  seen  by  comparing  Fig.  71  with  Fig.  67.  Indeed,  it  grows 
so  very  little  in  length,  that  it  is  often  much  broader  than  long,  as 
in  the  Indian  Turnip,  and  the  Cyclamen  of  our  greenhouses.  Corms 


LESSON  6.] 


SUBTERRANEAN  FORMS  : BULBS. 


45 


are  usually  upright,  producing  buds  on  their  upper  surface  and 
roots  from  the  lower.  But  (as  we  see  in  the  Crocus  here  figured) 
buds  may  shoot  from  just  above  any  of  the  faint  cross  lines  or 
rings,  which  are  the  scars  left  by  the  death 
and  decay  of  the  sheathing  bases  of  former 
leaves.  That  is,  these  are  axillary  buds.  In 
these  extraordinary  (just  as  in  ordinary)  stems, 
the  bads  are  either  axillary  or  terminal.  The 
whole  mode  of  growth  is  just  the  same,  only 
the  corm  does  not  increase  in  length  faster 
than  it  does  in  thickness.  After  a few  years 
some  of  the  buds  grow  into  new  corms  at  the 
expense  of  the  old  one ; the  young  ones  taking 
the  nourishment  from  the  parent,  and  storing 
up  a large  part  of  it  in  their  own  tissue. 

When  exhausted  in  this  way,  as  well  as  by 
flowering,  the  old  corm  dies,  and  its  shrivelled 
and  decaying  remains  may  be  found  at  the  side  of  or  beneath  the 
present  generation,  as  we  see  in  the  Crocus  (Fig.  71). 

107.  The  corm  of  a Crocus  is  commonly  covered  with  a thin  and 
dry,  scaly  or  fibrous  husk,  consisting  of  the  dead  remains  of  the  bases 
of  former  leaves.  When  this  husk  consists  of  many  scales,  there  is 
scarcely  any  distinction  left  between  the  corm  and 

108.  Tile  Bulb.  This  is  an  extremely  short  subterranean  stem, 
usually  much  broader  than  high,  producing  roots  from  underneath, 
and  covered  with  leaves  or  the  bases  of  leaves,  in  the  form  of  thick- 
ened scales.  It  is,  therefore,  the  same  as  a corm,  or  solid  bulb,  only 
it  bears  an  abundance  of  leaves  or  scales,  which  make  up  the  greater 
part  of  its  bulk.  Or  we  may  regard  it  as  a bud,  with  thick  and 
fleshy  scales.  Compare  a Lily -bulb  (Fig.  73)  with  the  strong  scaly 
buds  of  the  Hickory  and  Horsechestnut  (Fig.  48  and  49),  and  the 
resemblance  will  be  apparent  enough. 

109.  Bulbs  serve  the  same  purpose  as  tubers,  rootstocks,  or  corms. 
The  main  difference  is,  that  in  these  the  store  of  food  for  future 
growth  is  deposited  in  the  stem ; while  in  the  bulb,  the  greater  part 
is  deposited  in  the  bases  of  the  leaves,  changing  them  into  thick 
scales,  which  closely  overlap  or  enclose  one  another,  because  the 
stem  does  not  elongate  enough  to  separate  them.  That  the  scales 


FIG.  71.  Corm  or  solid  bulb  of  a Crocus.  72.  The  same,  cut  through  lengthwise. 


46 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


of  the  bulb  are  the  bases  of  leaves  may  be  seen  at  once  by  follow- 
ing any  of  the  ground-leaves  (root-leaves  as  they  are  incorrectly 

called)  down  to  their 
origin  in  the  bulb. 
Fig.  75  represents 
one  of  them  from 
the  White  Lily;  the 
thickened  base,  which 
makes  a scale,  being 
cut  off  below,  to  show 
its  thickness.  After 
having  lasted  its  time 
and  served  its  purpose  as  foliage,  the  green  leaf  dies,  down  to  the 
thickened  base,  which  remains  as  a scale  of  the  bulb.  And  year 
after  year,  as  the  bulb  grows  from  the  centre,  to  produce  the  vege- 
tation and  the  flowers  of  the  season,  the  outer  scales  yield  up  their 
store  of  nourishment  for  the  purpose,  and  perish. 

110.  Each  scale,  being  a leaf,  may  have  a bud  in  its  axil.  Some 
of  these  buds  grow  into  leafy  and  flowering  stems 
above  ground : others  grow  into  new  bulbs,  feeding 
on  the  parent,  and  at  length  destroying  it,  in  the  same 
way  that  corms  do,  as  just  described  (106). 

111.  When  the  scales  are  broad  and  enwrap  all 
that  is  within  so  as  to  form  a succession  of  coats,  one 
over  another,  the  bulb  is  said  to  be  tunicated  or  coated. 

The  Tulip,  Hyacinth,  Leek,  and  Onion  afford  such 
familiar  examples  of  coated  bulbs  that  no  figure  is 
needed.  When  the  scales  are  narrow  and  separate, 
as  in  the  Lily  (Fig.  73),  the  bulb  is  said  to  be  scaly. 

112.  BulbletS  are  small  bulbs  formed  above  ground 
on  some  plants ; as  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  of  the 
common  bulbiferous  Lily  of  the  gardens,  and  often  in 
the  flower-clusters  of  the  Leek  and  Onion.  They  are 
plainly  nothing  but  bulbs  with  thickened  scales.  They 
never  grow  into  branches,  but  detach  themselves  when  75 

full  grown,  and  fall  to  the  ground,  to  take  root  there  and  form 
new  plants. 

113.  From  the  few  illustrations  already  given,  attentive  students 

FIG.  73.  Bulb  of  the  Meadow  or  Canada  Lily.  74.  The  same,  cut  through  lengthwise. 

FIG.  75.  A lower  leaf  of  White  Lily,  with  its  base  under  ground  thickened  into  a bulb- 
scale. 


LESSON  6.]  CONSOLIDATED  FORMS  OF  VEGETATION. 


47 


can  hardly  fail  to  obtain  a good  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  morphology 
in  Botany ; and  they  will  be  able  to  apply  its  simple  principles  for 
themselves  to  all  forms  of  vegetation.  They  will  find  it  very  inter- 
esting to  identify  all  these  various  subterranean  forms  with  the  com- 
mon plan  of  vegetation  above  ground.  There  is  the  same  structure, 
and  the  same  mode  of  growth  in  reality,  however  different  in  ap- 
pearance, and  however  changed  the  form,  to  suit  particular  conditions, 
or  to  accomplish  particular  ends.  It  is  plain  to  see,  already,  that 
the  plant  is  constructed  according  to  a plan , — a very  simple  one,  — 
which  is  exhibited  by  all  vegetables,  by  the  extraordinary  no  less 
than  by  the  ordinary  kinds ; and  that  the  same  organ  may  appear 
under  a great  many  different  shapes,  and  fulfil  very  different  offices. 

114.  These  extraordinary  shapes  are  not  confined  to  subterra- 
nean vegetation.  They  are  all  repeated  in  various  sorts  of  fleshy 
plants ; in  the  Houseleek,  Aloe,  Agave  (Fig.  82),  and  in  the  many 
and  strange  shapes  which  the  Cactus  family  exhibit  (Fig.  76); 
shapes  which  imitate  rootstocks,  tubers,  corms,  &c.  above  ground. 
All  these  we  may  regard  as 

115.  Consolidated  Forms  Of  Vegetation.  While  ordinary  plants  are 
constructed  on  the  plan  of  great  spread  of  surface  (131),  these 
are  formed  on  the  plan  of  the  least  possible  amount  of  surface  in 
proportion  to  their  bulk.  The  Cereus  genus  of  Cactuses,  for  ex- 
ample, consisting  of  solid  columnar  trunks  (Fig.  76,  5),  may  be 
likened  to  rootstocks.  A green  rind  serves  the  purpose  of  foliage ; 
but  the  surface  is  as  nothing  compared  with  an  ordinary  leafy  plant 
of  the  same  bulk.  Compare,  for  instance,  the  largest  Cactus  known, 
the  Giant  Cereus  of  the  Gila  River  (Fig.  76,  in  the  background), 
which  rises  to  the  height  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  with  a common  leafy 
tree  of  the  same  height,  such  as  that  in  Fig.  54,  and  estimate  how 
vastly  greater,  even  without  the  foliage,  the  surface  of  the  latter 
is  than  that  of  the  former.  Compare,  in  the  same  view,  an  Opuntia 
or  Prickly-Pear  Cactus,  its  stem  and  branches  formed  of  a succes- 
sion of  thick  and  flattened  joints  (Fig.  76,  a),  which  may  be  likened 
to  tubers,  or  an  Epiphyllum  ( d ),  with  shorter  and  flatter  joints,  with 
an  ordinary  leafy  shrub  or  herb  of  equal  size.  And  finally,  in 
Melon- Cactuses  or  Echinocactus  (c),  with  their  globular  or  bulb-like 
shapes,  we  have  plants  in  the  compactest  shape ; their  spherical  fig- 
ure being  such  as  to  expose  the  least  possible  amount  of  its  bulk 
to  the  air. 

116.  These  consolidated  plants  are  evidently  adapted  and  designed 


48 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  STEMS  AND  BRANCHES.  [LESSON  6. 


for  very  dry  regions  ; and  in  such  only  are  they  found.  Similarly, 
bulbous  and  corm-bearing  plants,  and  the  like,  are  examples  of  a 
form  of  vegetation  which  in  the  growing  season  may  expand  a large 
surface  to  the  air  and  light,  while  during  the  period  of  rest  the 
living  vegetable  is  reduced  to  a globe,  or  solid  form  of  the  least 
possible  surface ; and  this  is  protected  by  its  outer  coats  of  dead 
and  dry  scales,  as  well  as  by  its  situation  under  ground.  Such 
plants  exhibit  another  and  very  similar  adaptation  to  a season  of 
drought.  And  they  mainly  belong  to  countries  (such  as  Southern 
Africa,  ^nd  parts  of  the  interior  of  Oregon  and  California)  which 
have  a long  hot  season  during  which  little  or  no  rain  falls,  when, 
their  stalks  and  foliage  above  and  their  roots  beneath  being  early  cut 
off  by  drought,  the  plants  rest  securely  in  their  compact  bulbs,  filled 
with  nourishment,  and  retaining  their  moisture  with  great  tenacity, 
until  the  rainy  season  comes  round.  Then  they  shoot  forth  leaves 
and  flowers  with  wonderful  rapidity,  and  what  was  perhaps  a desert 
of  arid  sand  becomes  green  with  foliage  and  gay  with  blossoms, 
almost  in  a day.  This  will  be  more  perfectly  understood  when  the 
nature  and  use  of  foliage  have  been  more  fully  considered.  (Fig.  76 
represents  several  forms  of  Cactus  vegetation.) 


b c d 

76 


LESSON  7.] 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES. 


49 


LESSON  VII. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES. 

117.  In  describing  the  subterranean  forms  of  the  stem,  we  have 
been  led  to  notice  already  some  of  the  remarkable  forms  under 
which  leaves  occur ; namely,  as  scales , sometimes  small  and  thin,  as 
those  of  the  rootstocks  of  the  Quick-grass,  or  the  Mint  (Fig.  64), 
sometimes  large  and  thick,  as  those  of  bulbs  (Fig.  73-75),  where 
they  are  commonly  larger  than  the  stem  they  belong  to.  We  have 
seen,  too,  in  the  second  Lesson,  the  seed-leaves  (or  cotyledons)  in 
forms  as  unlike  foliage  as  possible  ; and  in  the  third  Lesson  we  have 
spoken  of  bud-scales  as  a sort  of  leaves.  So  that  the  botanist  recog- 
nizes the  leaf  under  other  forms  than  that  of  foliage. 

118.  We  may  call  foliage  the  natural  form  of  leaves,  and  look 
upon  the  other  sorts  as  special  forms , — as  transformed  leaves : by 
this  term  meaning  only  that  what  would  have  been  ordinary  leaves 
under  other  circumstances  (as,  for  instance,  those  on  shoots  of  Mint, 
Fig.  64,  had  these  grown  upright  in  the  air,  instead  of  creeping  under 
ground)  are  developed  in  special  forms  to  serve  some  particular 
purpose.  For  the  Great  Author  of  Nature,  having  designed  plants 
upon  one  simple  plan,  just  adapts  this  plan  to  all  cases.  So,  when- 
ever any  special  purpose  is  to  be  accomplished,  no  new  instruments 
or  organs  are  created  for  it,  but  one  of  the  three  general  organs  of 
the  vegetable,  root , stem , or  leaf  is  made  to  serve  the  purpose,  and 
is  adapted  to  it  by  taking  some  peculiar  form. 

119.  It  is  the  study  of  the  varied  forms  under  this  view  that  con- 
stitutes Morphology  (61),  and  gives  to  this  part  of  Botany  such  great 
interest.  We  have  already  seen  stems  and  roots  under  a great 
variety  of  forms.  But  leaves  appear  under  more  various  and  widely 
different  forms,  and  answer  a greater  variety  of  purposes,  than  do 
both  the  other  organs  of  the  plant  put  together.  We  have  to  con- 
sider, then,  leaves  as  foliage , and  leaves  as  something  else  than  foliage. 
As  we  have  just  been  noticing  cases  of  leaves  that  are  not  foliage, 
we  may  consider  these  first,  and  enumerate  the  principal  kinds. 

120.  Leaves  as  Depositories  of  Food.  Of  these  we  have  had  plenty 
of  instances  in  the  seed-leaves,  such  as  those  of  the  Almond,  Apple- 
's 


50 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES. 


[LESSON  7. 


seed  (Fig.  11),  Beech  (Fig.  13-15),  the  Bean  and  Pea  (Fig.  16- 
20),  the  Oak  (Fig.  21,  22),  and  Horsechestnut  (Fig.  23,  24)  ; where 
the  food  upon  which  the  plantlet  feeds  wrhen  it  springs  from  the 
seed  is  stored  up  in  its  cotyledons  or  first  leaves.  And  we  have 
noticed  how  very  unlike  foliage  such  leaves  are.  Yet  in  some  cases, 

as  in  the  Pumpkin  (Fig.  10),  they 
actually  grow  into  green  leaves  as 
they  get  rid  of  their  burden. 

121.  Bulb-Scales  (Fig.  73-75)  of- 
fer another  instance,  which  we  were 
considering  at  the  close  of  the  last 
Lesson.  Here  a part  of  the  nourish- 
ment prepared  in  the  foliage  of  one 
year  is  stored  up  in  the  scales,  or 
subterranean  thickened  leaves,  for  the 
early  growth  and  flowering  of  the  next 
year ; and  this  enables  the  flowers  to 
appear  before  the  leaves,  or  as  soon 
as  they  do ; as  in  Hyacinths,  Snow- 
drops, and  many  bulbous  plants. 

122.  Leaves  as  Bud-scales,  &c.  True 
to  its  nature,  the  stem  produces 
leaves  even  under  ground,  where 
they  cannot  serve  as  foliage,  and 
where  often,  as  on  rootstocks  and 
tubers  (97  - 103),  they  are  not  of 
any  use  that  we  know  of.  In  such 
cases  they  usually  appear  as  thin 
scales.  So  the  first  leaves  of  the 
stems  of  herbs,  as  they  sprout  from 
the  ground,  are  generally  mere  scales, 
such  as  those  of  an  Asparagus  shoot ; 
and  such  are  the  first  leaves  on  the 
stem  of  the  seedling  Oak  (Fig.  22) 
and  the  Pea  (Fig.  20).  Similar 
scales,  however,  often  serve  an  im- 
portant purpose;  as  when  they  form  the  covering  of  buds,  where 
they  protect  the  tender  parts  within  (44).  That  bud-scales  are 

FIG.  77.  Leaves  of  a developing  bud  of  the  Low  Sweet  Buckeye  (iEsculus  parviflora ), 
showing  a nearly  complete  set  of  gradations  from  a scale  to  a compound  leaf  of  five  leaflets. 


f 


LESSON  7.]  SPINES,  TENDRILS,  AND  PITCHERS.  51 

leaves  is  plainly  shown,  in  many  cases,  by  the  gradual  transition 
between  them  and  the  first  foliage  of  the  shoot, 
and  the  Shell-bark  Hickory  are  good  instances 
of  the  sort.  But  the  best  illustration  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Low  Sweet  Buckeye  of  the 
Sou^iern  States,  which  is  often  cultivated  as 
an  ornamental  shrub.  From  one  and  the  same 
growing  bud  we  may  often  find  all  the  grada- 
tions which  are  shown  in  Fig.  77. 

123.  Leaves  as  Spines  occur  ill  several  plants. 

The  most  familiar  instance  is  that  of  the  Com- 
mon Barberry.  In  almost  any  summer  shoot, 
most  of  the  gradations  may  be  seen  between  the 
ordinary  leaves,  with  sharp  bristly  teeth,  and 
leaves  which  are  reduced  to  a branching  spine 
or  thorn,  as  shown  in  Fig.  78.  The  fact  that 
the  spines  of  the  Barberry  produce  a leaf-bud 
in  their  axil  also  proves  them  to  be  leaves. 

124.  Leaves  as  Tendrils  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Pea  and  the  Vetch  (Fig.  20,  127),  where  the 
upper  part  of  each  leaf  becomes  a tendril,  which 

the  plant  uses  to 
climb  by ; and  in 

one  kind  of  Vetch  the  whole  leaf  is 
such  a tendril. 

125.  Leaves  as  Pitchers,  or  hollow  tubes, 
are  familiar  to  us  in  the  common  Pitcher- 
plant  or  Side-saddle  Flower  (Sarracenia, 
Fig.  79)  of  our  bogs.  These  pitchers 
are  generally  half-full  of  water,  in  which 
flies  and  other  insects  are  drowned,  often 
in  such  numbers  as  to  make  a rich 
manure  for  the  plant,  no  doubt ; though 
we  can  hardly  imagine  this  to  be  the 
design  of  the  pitcher.  Nor  do  we  per- 
ceive here  any  need  of  a contrivance 
to  hold  water,  since  the  roots  of  these 
plants  are  always  well  supplied  by  the  wet  bogs  where  they  grow. 


The  Common  Lilac 


FIG.  78.  Summer  shoot  of  Barberry,  showing  the  transition  of  leaves  into  spines. 

FIG.  79.  Leaf  of  Sarracenia  purpurea,  entire,  and  another  with  the  upper  part  cut  off. 


52 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES. 


[lesson  7. 


126.  Leaves  as  Fly-traps.  Insects  are  caught  in  another  way,  and 
more  expertly,  by  the  most  extraordinary  of  all  the  plants  of  this 

country,  the  Dionaea  or  Venus’s  Fly- 
trap, which  grows  in  the  sandy  bogs 
around  Wilmington,  North  Carolina. 
Here  (Fig.  81)  each  leaf  bears  at  its 
summit  an  appendage  which  opens  and 
shuts,  in  shape  something  like  a steel- 
trap,  and  operating  much  like  one.  For 
when  open,  as  it  commonly  is  when  the 
sun  shines,  no  sooner  does  a fly  alight 
on  its  surface,  and  brush  against  any 
one  of  the  several  long  bristles  that  grow 
there,  than  the  trap  suddenly  closes, 
often  capturing  the  intruder,  pressing  it 
all  the  harder  for  its  struggles,  and  com- 
monly depriving  it  of  life.  After  all 
movement  has  ceased  within,  the  trap 
slowly  opens,  and  is  ready  for  another  capture.  Why  this  plant 
catches  flies,  we  cannot  pretend  to  say.  How  the  thing  is  done, 
and  how  various  other  movements  are 
made  by  plants,  — some  as  quick  as  in 
this  case,  others  very  slow,  but  all  equally 
wonderful,  — must  be  considered  in  a fu- 
ture Lesson. 

127.  Leaves  serving  both  Ordinary  and 
Special  Purposes.  Let  us  now  remark,  that 
the  same  leaf  frequently  answers  its  gen- 
eral purpose,  as  foliage,  and  some  special 
purpose  besides.  For  example,  in  the  Dio- 
naea, the  lower  part  of  the  leaf,  and  prob- 
ably the  whole  of  it,  acts  as  foliage,  while  the 
appendage  serves  its  mysterious  purpose 
as  a fly-catcher.  In  the  Pea  and  Vetch 
(Fig.  20,  127),  the  lower  part  of  the  leaf 
is  foliage,  the  upper  a tendril.  In  the  Pitcher-plants  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  (Nepenthes,  Fig.  80)  which  are  not  rare  in  conserva- 
tories, the  lower  part  of  the  leaf  is  expanded  and  acts  as  foliage ; 

FIG.  80.  Leaf  of  Nepenthes : leaf,  tendril,  and  pitcher  combined. 

FIG.  81.  Leaves  of  Dionaea  •,  the  trap  in  one  of  them  open,  in  the  others  closed. 


LESSON  7.]  THICKENED  AND  FLESHY  LEAVES. 


53 


farther  on,  it  is  contracted  into  a tendril,  enabling  the  plant  to  climb  ; 
the  end  of  this  tendril  is  then  expanded  into  a pitcher,  of  five  or 
six  inches  in  length,  and  on  the  end  of  this  is  a lid,  which  exactly 
closes  the  mouth  of  the  pitcher  until  after  it  is  full  grown,  when  the 
lid  opens  by  a hinge  ! But  the  whole  is  only  one  leaf. 

128.  So  in  the  root-leaves  of  the  Tulip  or  the  Lily  (Fig.  75), 
while  the  green  leaf  is  preparing  nourishment  throughout  the  grow- 
ing season,  its  base  under  ground  is  thickened  into  a reservoir  for 
storing  up  a good  part  of  the  nourishment  for  next  year’s  use. 

129.  Finally,  the  whole  leaf  often  serves  both  as  foliage,  to  pre- 
pare nourishment,  and  as  a depository  to  store  it  up.  This  takes 
place  in  all  fleshy-leaved  plants,  such  as  the  Houseleek,  the  Ice- 
plant,  and  various  sorts  of  Mesembryanthemum,  in  the  Live-for-ever 
of  the  gardens  to  some  extent,  and  very  strikingly  in  the  Aloe,  and 
in  the  Century-plant.  In  the  latter  it  is  only  the  green  surface  of 
these  large  and  thick  leaves  (of  three  to  five  feet  in  length  on  a 
strong  plant,  and  often  three  to  six  inches  thick  near  the  base)  which 
acts  as  foliage  ; the  whole  interior  is  white,  like  the  interior  of  a 
potato,  and  almost  as  heavily  loaded  with  starch  and  other  nourish- 
ing matter.  (Fig.  82  represents  a young  Century-plant,  Agave 
Americana.) 


82 


5* 


54 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  8. 


LESSON  VIII. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE. 

130.  Having  in  the  last  Lesson  glanced  at  some  of  the  special 
or  extraordinary  forms  and  uses  of  leaves,  we  now  return  to  leaves 
in  their  ordinary  condition,  namely,  as  foliage.  We  regard  this  as 
the  natural  state  of  leaves.  For  although  they  may  be  turned  to 
account  in  other  and  very  various  ways,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
still  their  proper  office  in  vegetation  is  to  serve  as  foliage.  In  this 
view  we  may  regard 

131.  Leaves  as  a Contrivance  for  Increasing  the  Surface  of  that  large 
part  of  the  plant  which  is  exposed  to  the  light  and  the  air.  This  is 
shown  by  their  expanded  form,  and  ordinarily  slight  thickness  in 
comparison  with  their  length  and  breath.  While  a Melon-Cactus 
(115,  Fig.  76)  is  a striking  example  of  a plant  with  the  least  pos- 
sible amount  of  surface  for  its  bulk,  a repeatedly  branching  leafy 
herb  or  tree  presents  the  largest  possible  extent  of  surface  to  the 
air.  The  actual  amount  of  surface  presented  by  a tree  in  full  leaf 
is  much  larger  than  one  would  be  apt  to  suppose.  Thus,  the  Wash- 
ington Elm  at  Cambridge  — a tree  of  no  extraordinary  size  — was 
some  years  ago  estimated  to  produce  a crop  of  seven  millions  of 
leaves,  exposing  a surface  of  200,000  square  feet,  or  about  five 
acres,  of  foliage. 

132.  What  is  done  by  the  foliage  we  shall  have  to  explain  in 
another  place.  Under  the  present  head  we  are  to  consider  ordinary 
leaves  as  to  their  parts  and  their  shapes. 

133.  The  Parts  Of  the  Leaf.  The  principal  part  of  a leaf  is  the 
blade,  or  expanded  portion,  one  face  of  which  naturally  looks  toward 
the  sky,  the  other  towards  the  earth.  The  blade  is  often  raised  on 
a stalk  of  its  own,  and  on  each  side  of  the  stalk  at  its  base  there  is 
sometimes  an  appendage  called  a stipule.  A complete  leaf,  there- 
fore consists  of  a blade  (Fig.  83,  b),  a foot-stallc  or  leafstalk , called 
the  petiole  (y>),  and  a pair  of  stipules  (st).  See  also  Fig.  136. 

134.  It  is  the  blade  which  we  are  now  to  describe.  This,  as 
being  the  essential  and  conspicuous  part,  we  generally  regard  as  the 
leaf : and  it  is  only  when  we  have  to  particularize,  that  we  speak  of 
the  blade , or  lamina, , of  the  leaf. 


LESSON  8.] 


THEIR  VENATION. 


55 


135.  Without  here  entering  upon  the  subject  of  the  anatomy  of 
the  leaf,  we  may  remark,  that  leaves  consist  of  two  sorts  of  mate- 
rial, viz.:  1.  the  green  pulp,  or  parenchyma;  and  2.  the  fibrous 
framework,  or  skeleton,  which  extends  throughout  the  soft  green 
pulp  and  supports  it,  giving  the  leaf  a strength  and  firmness  which 
it  would  not  otherwise  possess.  Besides,  the  whole  surface  is  cov- 
ered with  a transparent  skin,  called  the 
epidermis,  like  that  which  covers  the 
surface  of  the  shoots,  &c. 

136.  The  framework  consists  of 
wood,  — a fibrous  and  tough  material 
which  runs  from  the  stem  through  the 
leaf-stalk,  when  there  is  one,  in  the 
form  of  parallel  threads  or  bundles  of 
fibres ; and  in  the  blade  these  spread 
out  in  a horizontal  direction,  to  form 
the  ribs  and  veins  of  the  leaf.  The 
stout  main  branches  of  the  framework 
(like  those  in  Fig.  50)  are  called  the 
ribs.  When  there  is  only  one,  as  in 
Fig.  83,  &c.,  or  a middle  one  decid- 
edly larger  than  the  rest,  it  is  called 
the  midrib.  The  smaller  divisions  are  termed  veins ; and  their 
still  smaller  subdivisions,  veinlets. 

137.  The  latter  subdivide  again  and  again,  until  they  become  so 
fine  that  they  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  fibres  of  which 
they  are  composed  are  hollow ; forming  tubes  by  which  the  sap  is 
brought  into  the  leaves  and  carried  to  every  part.  The  arrangement 
of  the  framework  in  the  blade  is  termed  the 

138.  Venation,  or  mode  of  veining.  This  corresponds  so  complete- 
ly with  the  general  shape  of  the  leaf,  and  with  the  kind  of  division 
when  the  blade  is  divided  or  lobed,  that  the  readiest  way  to  study 
and  arrange  the  forms  of  leaves  is  first  to  consider  their  veining. 

139.  Various  as  it  appears  in  different  leaves,  the  veining  is  all 
reducible  to  two  principal  kinds ; namely,  the  parallel-veined  and  the 
netted-veined. 

140.  In  netted-veined  (also  called  reticulated ) leaves,  the  veins 
branch  off  from  the  main  rib  or  ribs,  divide  into  finer  and  finer 


FIG.  83.  Leaf  of  the  Quince : b,  blade  ; p,  petiole  ; st,  stipules. 


56  MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  8. 

veinlets,  and  the  branches  unite  with  each  other  to  form  meshes  of 
network.  That  is,  they  anastomose , as  anatomists  say  of  the  veins 
and  arteries  of  the  body.  The  Quince-leaf,  in  Fig.  83,  shows  this 
kind  of  veining  in  a leaf  with  a single  rib.  The  Maple,  Basswood, 
and  Buttonwood  (Fig.  50)  show  it  in  leaves  of  several  ribs. 

141.  In  parallel-veined  leaves,  the  whole  framework  consists  of 
slender  ribs  or  veins,  which  run  parallel  with  each  other,  or  nearly 
so,  from  the  base  to  the  point  of  the  leaf,  not  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing, nor  forming  meshes,  except  by  very  minute  cross-veinlets. 
The  leaf  of  any  grass,  or  that  of  the  Lily  of  the  Valley  (Fig.  84) 
will  furnish  a good  illustration. 

142.  Such  simple,  parallel  veins  Linnasus,  to  distinguish  them, 
called  nerves , and  parallel-veined  leaves 
are  still  commonly  called  nerved  leaves ; 
while  those  of  the  other  kind  are  said  to 
be  veined ; — terms  which  it  is  conven- 
ient to  use,  although  these  “ nerves  ” and 
“ veins  ” are  all  the  same  thing,  and  have 
no  likeness  to  the  nerves  of  animals. 

143.  Netted-veined  leaves  belong  to 
plants  which  have  a pair  of  seed-leaves 
or  cotyledons,  such  as  the  Maple  (Fig.  1 
-7),  Beech  (Fig.  15),  Pea  and  Bean 
(Fig.  18,  20),  and  most  of  the  illustra- 
tions in  the  first  and  second  Lessons. 
While  parallel-veined  or  nerved  leaves 
belong  to  plants  with  one  cotyledon  or 
si  true  seed-leaf ; such  as  the  Iris  (Fig.  134) 

and  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  42).  So  that  a mere  glance  at  the  leaves 
of  the  tree  or  herb  enables  one  to  tell  what  the  structure  of  the 
embryo  is;  and  to  refer  the  plant  to  one  or  the  other  of  these  two 
grand  classes,  — which  is  a great  convenience.  For  generally  when 
plants  differ  from  each  other  in  some  one  important  respect,  they 
differ  correspondingly  in  other  respects  as  well. 

144.  Parallel- veined  leaves  are  of  two  sorts  ; one  kind,  and  the 
commonest,  having  the  ribs  or  nerves  all  running  from  the  base  to 
the  point  of  the  leaf,  as  in  the  examples  already  given;  while  in 
another  kind  they  run  from  a midrib  to  the  margin ; as  in  the  com- 


FIG.  84.  A (parallel- veined)  leaf  of  the  Lily  of  the  Valley. 


LESSON  8.]  THEIR  FORMS  AS  TO  GENERAL  OUTLINE.  57 

mon  Pickerel-weed  of  our  ponds,  in  the  Banana  (Fig.  47),  and  many 
similar  plants  of  warm  climates. 

145.  Netted- veined  leaves  are  also  of  two  sorts,  as  is  shown  in 
the  examples  already  referred  to.  In  one  case  the  veins  all  rise 
from  a single  rib  (the  midrib),  as  in  Fig.  83.  Such  leaves  are  called 
feather-veined  or  pinnately-veined  ; both  terms  meaning  the  same 
thing,  namely,  that  the  veins  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  the  rib 
like  the  plume  of  a feather  on  each  side  of  the  shaft. 

146.  In  the  other  case  (as  in  the  Buttonwood,  Fig.  50,  Maple, 
&c.),  the  veins  branch  off  from  three,  five,  seven,  or  nine  ribs,  which 
spread  from  the  top  of  the  leaf-stalk,  and  run  through  the  blade  like 
the  toes  of  a web-footed  bird.  Hence  these  are  said  to  be  palmately 
or  digitately  veined,  or  (since  the  ribs  diverge  like  rays  from  a 
centre)  radiate-veined. 

147.  Since  the  general  outline  of  leaves  accords  with  the  frame- 
work or  skeleton,  it  is  plain  that  feather-veined  leaves  will  incline  to 
elongated  shapes,  or  at  least  will  be  longer  than  broad ; while  in 
radiate-veined  leaves  more  rounded  forms  are  to  be  expected.  A 
glance  at  the  following  figures  shows  this.  Whether  we  consider 
the  veins  of  the  leaf  to  be  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  blade,  or  the 
green  pulp  to  be  moulded  to  the  framework,  is  not  very  material. 
Either  way,  the  outline  of  each  leaf  corresponds  with  the  mode  of 
spreading,  the  extent,  and  the  relative  length  of  the  veins.  Thus,  in 
oblong  or  elliptical  leaves  of  the  feather-veined  sort  (Fig.  87,  88), 
the  principal  veins  are  nearly  equal  in  length ; while  in  ovate  and 
heart-shaped  leaves  (Fig.  89,  90),  those  below  the  middle  are 
longest;  and  in  leaves  which  widen  upwards  (Fig.  91-94),  the 
veins  above  the  middle  are  longer  than  the  others. 

148.  Let  us  pass  on,  without  particular  reference  to  the  kind  of 
veining,  to  enumerate  the  principal 

149.  Forms  of  Leaves  as  to  General  Outline.  It  is  necessary  to  give 
names  to  the  principal  shapes,  and  to  define  them  rather  precisely, 
since  they  afford  the  easiest  marks  for  distinguishing  species.  The 
same  terms  are  used  for  all  other  flattened  parts  as  well,  such  as  the 
petals  of  the  flowers  ; so  that  they  make  up  a great  part  of  the 
descriptive  language  of  Botany.  We  do  not  mention  the  names  of 
common  plants  which  exhibit  these  various  shapes.  It  will  be  a good 
exercise  for  young  students  to  look  them  up  and  apply  them. 

150.  Beginning  with  the  narrower  and  proceeding  to  the  broadest 
forms,  a leaf  is  said  to  be 


58 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  8. 


Linear  (Fig.  85),  when  narrow,  several  times  longer  than  wide, 
and  of  the  same  breadth  throughout. 

Lanceolate , or  lance-shaped , when  several  times  longer  than  wide, 
and  tapering  upwards  (Fig.  86),  or  both  upwards  and  downwards. 

Oblong  (Fig.  87),  when  nearly  twice  or  thrice  as  long  as  broad. 

Elliptical  (Fig.  88)  is  oblong  with  a flowing  outline,  the  two  ends 
alike  in  width. 

Oval  is  the  same  as  broadly  elliptical,  or  elliptical  with  the  breadth 
considerably  more  than  half  the  length. 

Ovate  (Fig.  89),  when  the  outline  is  like  a section  of  a lien’s-egg 
lengthwise,  the  broader  end  downward. 

Orbicular , or  rotund  (Fig.  102),  circular  in  outline,  or  nearly  so. 


151.  When  the  leaf  tapers  towards  the  base,  instead  of  upwards, 
it  may  be 

Oblanceolate  (Fig.  91),  which  is  lance-shaped,  with  the  more 

tapering  end  downwards ; 

Spatulate  (Fig.  92),  round- 
ed above  and  long  and  narrow 
below,  like  a spatula ; 

Obovate  (Fig.  93),  or  in- 
versely ovate,  that  is,  ovate  with 
the  narrower  end  down  ; or 
Cuneate , or  cuneiform , that  is,  wedge-shaped  (Fig.  94),  broad 
above  and  tapering  by  straight  lines  to  an  acute  angle  at  the  base. 

152.  As  to  lllC  Base,  its  shape  characterizes  several  forms,  such  as 
Cordate , or  heart-shaped  (Fig.  90,  99,  8),  when  a leaf  of  an  ovate 

form,  or  something  like  it,  has  the  outline  of  its  rounded  base  turned 
in  (forming  a notch  or  sinus')  where  the  stalk  is  attached. 

Reniform,  or  kidney-shaped  (Fig.  100),  like  the  last,  only  rounder 
and  broader  than  long. 


FIG.  85-90.  Various  forms  of  feather-veined  leaves. 

FIG.  91.  Oblanceolate,  92.  spatulate,  93.  obovate,  94.  wedge-shaped,  feather-veined  leaves. 


LESSON  8.] 


THEIR  PARTICULAR  FORMS. 


59 


Auriculate , or  eared,  having  a pair  of  small  and  blunt  projections, 
or  ears , at  the  base,  as  in  one  species  of  Magnolia  (Fig.  96). 

Sagittate , or  arrow-shaped , where  such  ears  are  pointed  and  turned 
downwards,  while  the 
main  body  of  the  blade 
tapers  upwards  to  a 
point,  as  in  the  com- 
mon Sagittaria  or  Ar- 
row-head, and  in  the 
Arrow-leaved  Polygo- 
num (Fig.  95). 

Hastate , or  halberd- 
shaped, when  such 
lobes  at  the  base  point  outwards,  giving  the  leaf  the  shape  of  the 
halberd  of  the  olden  time,  as  in  another  Polygonum  (Fig.  97). 

Peltate , or  shield-shaped , (Fig.  102,)  is  the  name  applied  to  a 
curious  modification  of  the  leaf,  commonly  of  a rounded  form,  where 
the  footstalk  is  attached  to  the  lower  surface,  instead  of  the  base,  and 


therefore  is  naturally  likened  to  a shield  borne  by  the  outstretched 
arm.  The  common  Watershield,  the  Nelumbium,  and  the  White 
Water-lily,  and  also  the  Mandrake,  exhibit  this  sort  of  leaf.  On 
comparing  the  shield-shaped  leaf  of  the  common  Marsh  Pennywort 
(Fig.  102)  with  that  of  another  common  species  (Fig.  101),  we  see 
at  once  what  this  peculiarity  means.  A shield-shaped  leaf  is  like  a 


FIG.  95.  Sagittate,  96.  auriculate,  97.  halberd-shaped,  leaves. 
FIG.  98  - 102.  Various  forms  of  radiate-veined  leaves. 


60 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  8. 


kidney-shaped  (Fig.  100)  or  other  rounded  leaf,  with  the  margins  at 
the  base  brought  together  and  united. 

153.  As  to  tlie  Apex,  the  following  terms  express  the  principal 
variations. 

Acuminate , 'pointed ',  or  taper -pointed,  when  the  summit  is  more  or 
less  prolonged  into  a narrowed  or  tapering  point,  as  in  Fig.  97. 

Acute , when  ending  in  an  acute  angle  or  not  prolonged  point,  as 
in  Fig.  104,  98,  95,  &c. 

Obtuse , when  with  a blunt  or  rounded  point,  as  in  Fig.  105,  89,  &c. 

Truncate , with  the  end  as  if  cut  off  square,  as  in  Fig.  106,  94. 

Refuse,  with  the  rounded  summit  slightly  indented,  forming  a 
very  shallow  notch,  as  in  Fig.  107. 

Emarginate,  or  notched,  indented  at  the  end  more  decidedly,  as 
in  Fig.  108. 

Obcordate,  that  is,  inversely  heart-shaped,  where  an  obovate  leaf 
is  more  deeply  notched  at  the  end  (Fig.  109),  as  in  White  Clover  and 
Wood-sorrel ; so  as  to  resemble  a cordate  leaf  (Fig.  99)  inverted. 

Cuspidajte,  tipped  with  a sharp  and  rigid  point ; as  in  Fig.  110. 

Mucronate , abruptly  tipped  with  a small  and  short  point,  like  a 
projection  of  the  midrib  ; as  in  Fig.  111. 

Aristate,  awn-pointed,  and  bristle-pointed,  are  terms  used  when  this 
mucronate  point  is  extended  into  a longer  bristle-form  or  other 
slender  appendage. 

The  first  six  of  these  terms  can  be  applied  to  the  lower  as  well  as 
to  the  upper  end  of  a leaf  or  other  organ.  The  others  belong  to 
the  apex  only. 


103  104  105  106  107  108  109  110  111 


FIG.  103  - 111.  Forms  of  the  apex  ot  leaves. 


LESSON  9.J 


SIMPLE  AND  COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


61 


LESSON  IX. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE. SIMPLE  AND  COM- 

POUND LEAVES,  STIPULES,  ETC. 

154.  In  the  foregoing  Lesson  leaves  have  been  treated  of  in  their 
simplest  form,  namely,  as  consisting  of  a single  blade.  But  in  many 
cases  the  leaf  is  divided  into  a number  of  separate  blades.  That  is, 

155.  Leaves  are  either  Simple  or  Compound.  They  are  said  to  be 
simple , when  the  blade  is  all  of  one  piece  : they  are  compound , when 
the  blafde  consists  of  two  or  more  separate  pieces,  borne  upon  a 
common  leaf-stalk.  And  between  these  two  kinds  every  interme- 
diate gradation  is  to  be  met  with.  This  will  appear  as  we  proceed 
to  notice  the  principal 

156.  Forms  of  Leaves  as  to  particular  Outline  or  degree  of  division. 
In  this  respect,  leaves  are  said  to  be 

Entire , when  their  general  outline  is  completely  filled  out,  so  that 
the  margin  is  an  even  line,  without  any  teeth  or  notches ; as  in 
Fig.  83,  84,  100,  &c. 

Serrate,  or  saw-toothed,  when  the  margin  only  is  cut  into  sharp 
teeth,  like  those  of  a saw,  and  pointing  forwards;  as  in  Fig.  112; 
also  90,  &c. 


Dentate,  or  toothed,  when  such  teeth  point  outwards,  instead 
of  forwards  ; as  in  Fig.  113. 

FIG.  112-117.  Kinds  of  margin  of  leaves. 

6 


62 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  9. 


Crenate , or  scalloped , when  the  teeth  are  broad  and  rounded  ; as 
in  Fig.  114,  101. 

Repand,  undulate , or  wavy,  when  the  margin  of  the  leaf  forms  a 
wavy  line,  bending  slightly  inwards  and  outwards  in  succession ; as 
in  Fig.  115. 

Sinuate , when  the  margin  is  more  strongly  sinuous,  or  turned 
inwards  and  outwards,  as  in  Fig.  116. 

Incised , cut,  or  jagged , when  the  margin  is  cut  into  sharp,  deep, 
and  irregular  teeth  or  incisions,  as  in  Fig.  117. 

157.  When  leaves  are  more  deeply  cut,  and  with  a definite  number 
of  incisions,  they  are  said,  as  a general  term,  to  be  lobed  ; the  parts 
being  called  lobes.  Their  number  is  expressed  by  the  phrase  two- 
lobed , three-lobed , five-lobed , many-lobed , See.,  as  the  case  may  be. 
When  the  depth  and  character  of  the  lobing  needs  to  be  more  par- 
ticularly specified,  — as  is  often  the  case,  — the  following  terms  are 
employed,  viz. : 

Lobed,  when  the  incisions  do  not  extend  deeper  than  about  half- 
way between  the  margin  and  the  centre  of  the  blade,  if  so  far,  and 
are  more  or  less  rounded;  as  in  the  leaves  of  the  Post-Oak,  Fig. 
118,  and  the  Hepatica,  Fig.  122. 

Cleft,  when  the  incisions  extend  half-way  down  or  more,  and 
especially  when  they  are  sharp,  as  in  Fig.  119,  123.  And  the 
phrases  two-cleft,  or,  in  the  Latin  form,  bifid ; three-cleft,  or  trifid; 
four-cleft,  or  quadrifid ; five-cleft,  or  quinquefid,  See. ; or  many-cleft, 
in  the  Latin  form  multifid,  — express  the  number  of  the  segments, 
or  portions. 

Parted,  when  the  incisions  are  still  deeper,  but  yet  do  not  quite 
reach  to  the  midrib  or  the  base  of  the  blade ; as  in  Fig.  120,  124. 
And  the  terms  two-parted,  three-parted,  See.  express  the  number  of 
such  divisions. 

Divided,  when  the  incisions  extend  quite  to  the  midrib,  as  in  the 
lower  part  of  Fig.  121 ; or  to  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  Fig.  125 ; which 
makes  the  leaf  compound.  Here,  using  the  Latin  form,  the  leaf  is 
said  to  be  bisected,  trisected  (Fig.  125),  See.,  to  express  the  number 
of  the  divisions. 

158.  In  this  way  the  degree  of  division  is  described.  We  may 
likewise  express  the  mode  of  division.  The  notches  or  incisions, 
being  places  where  the  green  pulp  of  the  blade  has  not  wholly  filled 
up  the  framework,  correspond  with  the  veining ; as  we  perceive 
on  comparing  the  figures  118  to  121  with  figures  122  to  125.  The 


LESSON  9.] 


LOBED  OR  DIVIDED  LEAVES. 


63 


upper  row  of  figures  consists  of  feather -veined , or,  in  Latin  form, 
pinnately-veined  leaves  (145);  the  lower  row,  of  radiate-veined  or 
palmately-veined  leaves  (146). 


118  119  120  121 


122  123  124  125 


159.  In  the  upper  row  the  incisions  all  point  towards  the  midrib, 
from  which  the  main  veins  arise,  the  incisions  (or  sinuses ) being 
between  the  main  veins.  That  is,  being  pinnately  veined,  such 
leaves  are  pinnately  lobed  (Fig.  118),  pinnately  cleft , or  pinnatifid 
(Fig.  119),  pinnately  parted  (Fig.  120),  or  pinnately  divided  (Fig. 
121),  according  to  the  depth  of  the  incisions,  as  just  defined. 

160.  In  the  lower  row  of  figures,  as  the  main  veins  or  ribs  all 
proceed  from  the  base  of  the  blade  or  the  summit  of  the  leaf-stalk,  so 
the  incisions  all  point  in  that  direction.  That  is,  palmately-vevnedi. 
leaves  are  palmately  lobed  (Fig.  122),  palmately  cleft  (Fig.  123), 
palmately  parted  (Fig.  124),  or  palmately  divided  (Fig.  125).  Some- 
times, instead  of  palmately,  we  say  digitately  cleft,  &c.,  which  means 
just  the  same. 

161.  To  be  still  more  particular,  the  number  of  the  lobes,  &c. 
may  come  into  the  phrase.  Thus,  Fig.  122  is  a palmately  three- 
lobed  ; Fig.  123,  & palmately  three-cleft ; Fig.  124,  a palmately  three- 
parted  ; Fig.  125,  a palmately  three-divided , or  trisected , leaf.  The 

FIG.  118-121.  Pinnately  lobed,  cleft,  parted,  and  divided  leaves. 

FIG.  122  - 125.  Palmately  or  digitately  lobed,  cleft,  parted,  and  divided  leaves. 


64 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  9. 


Sugar-Maple  and  the  Buttonwood  (Fig.  50)  have  palmately  five - 
lobed  leaves  ; the  Soft  White-Maple  palmately  five-parted  leaves  ; and 
so  on.  And  in  the  other  sort,  the  Post-Oak  has  pinnately  seven - 
to  nine-lobed  leaves  ; the  Bed-Oak  commonly  has  pinnately  seven - to 
nine-cleft  leaves , &c.,  &c. 

162.  The  divisions,  lobes,  &c.  may  themselves  be  entire  (without 
teeth  or  notches,  156),  as  in  Fig.  118,  122,  &c. ; or  serrate  (Fig. 
124),  or  otherwise  toothed  or  incised  (Fig.  121) ; or  else  lobed,  cleft, 
parted,  &c. : in  the  latter  cases  making  twice  pinnatifid,  twice  pal- 
mately or  pinnately  lobed , parted,  or  divided  leaves,  &c.  F rom  these 
illustrations,  the  student  will  perceive  the  plan  by  which  the  bota- 
nist, in  two  or  three  words,  may  describe  any  one  of  the  almost 
endlessly  diversified  shapes  of  leaves,  so  as  to  convey  a perfectly 
clear  and  definite  idea  of  it. 

163.  Compound  Leaves.  These,  as  already  stated  (155),  do  not 
differ  in  any  absolute  way  from  the  divided  form  of  simple  leaves. 
A compound  leaf  is  one  which  has  its  blade  in  two  or  more  entirely 
separate  parts,  each  usually  with  a stalklet  of  its  own : and  the  stalk- 
let  is  often  jointed  (or  articulated ) with  the  main  leaf-stalk,  just  as 
this  is  jointed  with  the  stem.  When  this  is  the  case,  there  is  no 


doubt  that  the  leaf  is  compound.  But  when  the  pieces  have  no 
stalklets,  and  are  not  jointed  with  the  main  leaf-stalk,  the  leaf  may 
be  considered  either  as  simple  and  divided,  or  compound,  according 
to  the  circumstances. 

FIG.  126.  Pinnate  with  an  odd  leaflet,  or  odd-pinnate.  127.  Pinnate  with  a tendril. 
128.  Abruptly  pinnate  leaf. 


LESSON  9.] 


COMPOUND  LEAVES. 


65 


164.  The  separate  pieces  or  little  blades  of  a compound  leaf  are 
called  leaflets. 

165.  Compound  leaves  are  of  two  principal  kinds,  namely,  the 
pinnate  and  the  palmate  ; answering  to  the  two  modes  of  veining  in 
reticulated  leaves  (145-147),  and  to  the  two  sorts  of  lobed  or  di- 
vided leaves  (158,  159). 

166.  Pinnate  leaves  are  those  in  which  the  leaflets  are  arranged 
on  the  sides  of  a main  leaf-stalk  ; as  in  Fig.  126  — 128.  They  answer 
to  the  feather-veined  (i.  e.  pinnately-veined ) simple  leaf ; as  will  be 
seen  at  once,  on  comparing  Fig.  126  with  the  figures  118  to  121. 
The  leaflets  of  the  former  answer  to  the  lobes  or  divisions  of  the 
latter ; and  the  continuation  of  the  petiole,  along  which  the  leaflets 
are  arranged,  answers  to  the  midrib  of  the  simple  leaf. 

167.  Three  sorts  of  pinnate  leaves  are  here  given.  Fig.  126  is 
pinnate  with  an  odd  or  end  leaflet , as  in  the  Common  Locust  and 
the  Ash.  Fig.  127  is  pinnate  with  a tendril  at  the  end , in  place  of 
the  odd  leaflet,  as  in  the  Vetches  and  the  Pea.  Fig.  128  is  abruptly 
pinnate , having  a pair  of  leaflets  at  the  end,  like  the  rest  of  the  leaf- 
lets ; as  in  the  Honey-Locust. 

168.  Palmate  (also  named  digitate')  leaves  are  those  in  which  the 
leaflets  are  all  borne  on  the  very  tip  of  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  the 
Lupine,  the  Common  Clover  (Fig.  136),  the  Virginia  Creeper  (Fig. 
62),  and  the  Horsechestnut  and  Buckeye  (Fig.  129),  They  answer 
to  the  radiate-veined  or  palmately- 
veined  simple  leaf;  as  is  seen  by 
comparing  Fig.  136  with  the  figures 
122  to  125.  That  is,  the  Clover- 
leaf  of  three  leaflets  is  the  same  as 
a palmately  three-ribbed  leaf  cut 
into  three  separate  leaflets.  And 
such  a simple  five-lobed  leaf  as  that 
of  the  Sugar-Maple,  if  more  cut,  so 
as  to  separate  the  parts,  would  pro- 
duce a palmate  leaf  of  five  leaflets, 
like  that  of  the  Horsechestnut  or  Buckeye  (Fig.  129). 

169.  Either  sort  of  compound  leaf  may  have  any  number  of  leaf- 
lets ; though  palmate  leaves  cannot  well  have  a great  many,  since 
they  are  all  crowded  together  on  the  end  of  the  main  leaf-stalk. 

FIG.  129.  Palmate  leaf  of  five  leaflets,  of  the  Sweet  Buckeye. 

6* 


66 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  9. 

Some  Lupines  have  nine  or  eleven ; the  Horsechestnut  has  seven, 
the  Sweet  Buckeye  more  commonly  five,  the  Clover  three.  A pin- 
nate leaf  often  has  only  seven  or  five  leaflets,  as  in  the  Wild  Bean 
or  Groundnut ; and  in  the  Common  Bean  it  has  only  three ; in 

some  rarer  cases  only  two  ; in 
the  Orange  and  Lemon  only 
one!  The  joint  at  the  place 
where  the  leaflet  is  united  with 
the  petiole  alone  distinguishes 
this  last  case  from  a simple 
leaf* 

170.  The  leaflets  of  a com- 
pound leaf  may  be  either  entire 
(as  in  Fig.  126  - 128),  or  ser- 
rate, or  lobed,  cleft,  parted, 
&c. : in  fact,  they  may  pre- 
sent all  the  variations  of  simple 
leaves,  and  the  same  terms 
equally  apply  to  them. 

171.  When  this  division  is 
carried  so  far  as  to  separate 
what  would  be  one  leaflet  into 
two,  three,  or  several,  the  leaf 
becomes  doubly  or  twice  com- 
pound, either  pinnately  or pal- 

130  mately,  as  the  case  may  be. 
For  example,  while  some  of  the  leaves  of  the  Honey-Locust  are 
simply  pinnate,  that  is,  once  pinnate,  as  in  Fig.  128,  the  greater  part 


* When  the  botanist,  in  describing  leaves,  wishes  to  express  the  number  of 
leaflets,  he  may  use  terms  like  these  : — 

Unifoliolate,  for  a compound  leaf  of  a single  leaflet ; from  the  Latin  unum,  one, 
and  foliolum,  leaflet. 

Bifoliolate,  of  two  leaflets,  from  the  Latin  bis,  twice,  and  foliolum,  leaflet. 

Trifoliolate  (or  ternate),  of  three  leaflets,  as  the  Clover ; and  so  on. 

When  he  would  express  in  one  phrase  both  the  number  of  leaflets  and  the  way 
the  leaf  is  compound,  he  writes  : — 

Palmately  bifoliolate,  trifoliolate,  plurifoliolate  (of  several  leaflets),  &c.,  or  else 

Pinnately  bi-,  tri-,  quadri-,  or  plurifoliolate  (that  is,  of  two,  three,  four,  five,  or 
several  leaflets),  as  the  case  may  be. 

FIG.  130.  A twice-pinnate  (abruptly)  leaf  of  the  Honey-Locust. 


LESSON  9.] 


PERFOLIATE  LEAVES,  ETC. 


67 


are  Upmnate , i.e.  twice  pinnate , as  in  Fig.  130.  If  these  leaflets 
were  again  divided  in  the  same  way,  the  leaf  would  become  thrice 
pinnate,  or  tripinnate,  as  in  many  Acacias.  The  first  divisions  are 

called  pinna;  ; the  others,  pinnules ; and  the  last,  or  little  blades 
leaflets. 

1^2.  So  the  palmate  leaf,  if  again  compounded  in  the  same  way, 
becomes  twice  palmate,  or,  as  we  say  when  the  divisions  are  in  ' 
threes,  twice  ternate  (in  Latin  form  biternate)  ; if  a third  time  com- 
pounded, thrice  ternate  or  triternate.  But  if  the  division  goes  still 
further,  or  if  the  degree  is  variable,  we  simply  say  that  the  leaf  is 
decompound;  either  palmately  or  pinnately  so,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Ihus,  Fig.  138  represents  a four  times  ternately  compound,  in  other 
words  a ternately  decompound,  leaf  of  our  common  Meadow  Rue. 

173.  So  exceedingly  various  are  the  kinds  and  shapes  of  leaves 
that  we  have  not  yet  exhausted  the  subject.  We  have,  however’ 
mentioned  the  principal  terms  used  in  describing  them.  Many 
others  will  be  found  in  the  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  Some 
peculiar  sorts  of  leaves  remain  to  be  noticed,  which  the  student  might 
not  well  understand  without  some  explanation  ; such  as 

174.  Perfoliate  Leaves.  A common  and  simple  case  of  this  sort  is 
found  in  two  species  of  Uvularia  or  Bellwort,  where  the  stem  appears 
to  run  through  the  blade  of  the  leaf, 
near  one  end.  If  we  look  at  this  plant 
in  summer,  after  all  the  leaves  are 
formed,  we  may  see  the  meaning  of  this 
at  a glance.  For  then  we  often  find 
upon  the  same  stem  such  a series  of 
leaves  as  is  given  in  Fig.  131  : the  low- 
er leaves  are  perfoliate,  those  next  above 
less  so  ; then  some  (the  fourth  and  fifth) 
with  merely  a heart-shaped  clasping 
base,  and  finally  one  that  is  merely 
Mssile.  The  leaf,  we  perceive,  becomes 
perfoliate  by  the  union  of  the  edges  of 
the  base  with  each  other  around  the 
stem  ; just  as  the  shield-shaped  leaf,  Fig. 

th*  union  of  the  ed&*  of  the  base  of  such  a leaf 
as  h.g.  101.  Of  the  same  sort  are  the  upper  leaves  of  most  of 

FIG.  13].  Leaves  of  Uvularia  (Bellwort)  5 the  lower  ones  perfoliate  th„ 
clasping,  or  the  uppermost  only  sessile.  P foliate,  the  others  merely 


68 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  9. 


the  true  Honeysuckles  (Fig.  132)  : but  here  it  is  a pair  of  oppo- 
site leaves,  with  their  contiguous  broad  bases  grown  together,  which 
makes  what  seems  to  be  one  round  leaf,  with  the  stem  running 
through  its  centre.  This  is  seen  to  be  the  case,  by  comparing 
together  the  upper  and  the  lowest  leaves  of  the  same  branch. 
Leaves  of  this  sort  are  said  to  be  connate-perfoliate. 

175.  Equitant  Leaves.  While  ordinary 
leaves  spread  horizontally,  and  present 
one  face  to  the  sky  and  the  other  to  the 
earth,  there  are  some  that  present  their 
tip  to  the  sky,  and  their  faces  right 
and  left  to  the  horizon.  Among  these 
are  the  equitant  leaves  of  the  Iris  or 
Flower-de-Luce.  On  careful  inspection 
we  shall  find  that  each  leaf  was  formed 
folded  together  length- 
wise, so  that  what 
would  be  the  upper 
surface  is  within,  and 
all  grown  together,  ex- 
cept next  the  bottom, 

132  where  each  leaf  covers 

the  next  younger  one.  It  was  from  their  strad- 
dling over  each  other,  like  a man  on  horseback  (as 
is  seen  in  the  cross-section,  Fig.  134),  that  Linnaeus, 
with  his  lively  fancy,  called  these  equitant  leaves. 

176.  Leaves  with  no  distinction  of  Petiole  and  Blade. 

The  leaves  of  Iris  just  mentioned  show  one  form 
of  this.  The  flat  but  narrow 
leaves  of  Jonquils,  Daffodils, 
and  the  like,  are  other  in- 
stances. Needle-shaped  leaves, 
like  those  of  the  Pine  (Fig. 

140),  Larch  (Fig.  139),  and 
Spruce,  and  the  awl-shaped 
as  well  as  the  scale-shaped 
leaves  of  Junipers,  Red  Ce- 


FIG.  139.  Branch  of  a Yellow  Honeysuckle,  with  connate-perfoliate  leaves. 

FIG.  133.  Rootstock  and  equitant  leaves  of  Iris.  134.  A section  across  the  cluster  of 
leaves  at  the  bottom. 


LESSON  9.]  PHILLODIA,  STIPULES,  ETC.  69 

dar,  and  Arbor-Vitae  (Fig.  135),  are  different  examples.  These 
last  are  leaves  serving  for  foliage,  but  having  as 
little  spread  of  surface  as  possible.  They  make 
up  for  this,  however,  by  their  immense  numbers. 

177.  Sometimes  the  petiole  expands  and  flattens, 
and  takes  the  place  of  the  blade ; as  in  numerous 
New  Holland  Acacias,  some  of  which  are  now 
common  in  greenhouses.  Such  counterfeit  blades 
are  called  phyllodia , — meaning  leaf-like  bodies. 
They  may  be  known  from  true  blades  by  their 
standing  edgewise,  their  margins  being  directed 
upwards  and  downwards  ; while  in  true  blades  the 
faces  look  upwards  and  downwards ; excepting  in 
equitant  leaves,  as  al- 
ready explained,  and 
in  those  which  are 
turned  edgewise  by 
a twist,  such  as  those  of  the  Callis- 
temon  or  Bottle-brush  Flower  of  our 
greenhouses,  and  other  Dry  Myrtles 
of  New  Holland,  &c. 

178.  Stipules,  the  pair  of  appendages 
which  is  found  at  the  base  of  the  peti- 
ole in  many  leaves  (133),  should  also 
be  considered  in  respect  to  their  very 
varied  forms  and  appearances.  More 
commonly  they  appear  like  little  blades, 
on  each  side  of  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  the 
Quince  (Fig.  83),  and  more  strikingly 
in  the  Hawthorn  and  in  the  Pea.  Here 
they  remain  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the 
leaf,  and  serve  for  the  same  purpose 
as  the  blade.  Very  commonly  they 
serve  for  bud-scales,  and  fall  off  w hen 
the  leaves  expand,  as  in  the  Fig-tree, 
and  the  Magnolia  (where  they  are  large  and  conspicuous),  or  soon 

FIG.  135.  Twig  of  Arbor-Vitae,  with  its  two  sorts  of  leaves:  viz.  some  awl-shaped,  the 
others  scale-like  ; the  latter  on  the  branchlets,  a. 

FIG.  136.  Leaf  of  Red  Clover  : st,  stipules,  adhering  to  the  base  of  p,  the  petiole  : b,  blade 
of  three  leaflets. 

FIG.  137.  Part  of  stem  and  leaf  of  Prince’s-Feather  (Polygonum  orientale)  with  the  united 
sheathing  stipules  forming  a sheath. 


70 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  LEAVES  AS  FOLIAGE.  [LESSON  9. 


afterwards,  as  in  the  Tulip-tree.  In  the  Pea  the  stipules  make  a 
very  conspicuous  part  of  the  leaf ; while  in  the  Bean  they  are  quite 
small ; and  in  the  Locust  they  are  reduced  to  bristles  or  prickles. 
Sometimes  the  stipules  are  separate  and  distinct  (Fig.  83) : often 
they  are  united  with  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  the  Rose  and 
the  Clover  (Fig.  136) : and  sometimes  they  grow  together  by  both 
margins,  so  as  to  form  a sheath  around  the  stem,  above  the  leaf,  as 
in  the  Buttonwood,  the  Dock,  and  almost  all  the  plants  of  the 
Polygonum  Family  (Fig.  137). 

179.  The  sheaths  of  Grasses  bear  the  blade  on  their  summit,  and 
therefore  represent  a form  of  the  petiole.  The  small  and  thin  ap- 
pendage which  is  commonly  found  at  the  top  of  the  sheath  (called  a 
ligule)  here  answers  to  the  stipule. 


FIG.  138.  Temately-decompound  leaf  of  Meadow  Rue  (Thalictrum  Cornuti). 


LESSOR  10.] 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES. 


71 


LESSON  X. 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES. 

180.  Under  this  head  we  may  consider,  — 1.  the  arrangement  of 
leaves  on  the  stem,  or  what  is  sometimes  called  phyllotaxy  (from 
two  Greek  words  meaning  leaf-order ) ; and  2.  the  ways  in  which 
they  are  packed  together  in  the  bud,  or  their  vernation  (the  word 
meaning  their  spring  state). 

181.  Phyllotaxy.  As  already  explained  (48,  49),  leaves  are  ar- 
ranged on  the  stem  in  two  principal  ways.  They  are  either 

Alternate  (Fig.  131,  143),  that  is,  one  after  another,  only  a single 
leaf  arising  from  each  node  or  joint  of  the  stem ; or 

Opposite  (Fig.  147),  when  there  is  a pair  of  leaves  on  each  joint 
of  the  stem ; one  of  the  two  leaves  being  in  this  case  always  situ- 
ated exactly  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem  from  the  other.  A 
third,  but  uncommon  arrangement,  may  be  added  ; namely,  the 

Whorled , or  verticillate  (Fig.  148),  when  there  are  three  or  more 
leaves  in  a circle  ( whorl  or  verticil)  on  one  joint  of  stem.  But  this 
is  only  a variation  of  the  opposite  mode;  or  rather  the  latter  ar- 
rangement is  the  same  as'  the  whorled,  with  the  number  of  the 
leaves  reduced  to  two  in  each  whorl. 

182.  Only  one  leaf  is  ever  produced  from  the  same  point.  When 
two  are  borne  on  the  same  joint,  they  are  always  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  stem,  that  is,  are  separated  by  half  the  circumference ; when 
in  whorls  of  three,  four,  five,  or  any  other  number,  they  are  equally 
distributed  around  the  joint  of  stem,  at  a distance  of  one  third,  one 
fourth,  or  one  fifth  of  the  circumfer- 
ence from  each  other,  according  to 
their  number.  So  they  always  have 
the  greatest  possible  divergence  from 
each  other.  Two  or  more  leaves  be- 
longing to  the  same  joint  of  stem 
never  stand  side  by  side,  or  one 
above  the  other,  in  a cluster. 

183.  What  are  called  clustered  or  fascicled  leaves,  and  which 


FIG.  139.  Clustered  or  fascicled  leaves  of  the  Larch 


72  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES  ON  THE  STEM  [LESSON  10. 

appear  to  be  so,  are  always  the  leaves  of  a whole  branch  which 
remains  so  very  short  that  they  are  all  crowded  together  in  a 
bundle  or  rosette ; as  in  the  spring  leaves  of  the  Barberry  and  of 
the  Larch  (Fig.  139).  In  these  cases  an  examination  shows  them 
to  be  nothing  else  than  alternate  leaves,  very  much  crowded  on  a 
short  spur ; and  some  of  these  spurs  are  seen  in  the  course  of  the 
season  to  lengthen  into  ordinary  shoots  with  scattered  alternate 
leaves.  So,  likewise,  each  cluster  of  two  or  three  needle-shaped 
leaves  in  Pitch  Pines  (as  in  Fig.  140),  or  of  five  leaves 
in  White-  Pine,  answers  to  a similar,  extremely  short 
branch,  springing  from  the  axil  of  a thin  and  slender 
scale,  which  represents  a leaf  of  the  main  shoot.  For 
Pines  produce  two  kinds  of  leaves ; — 1.  primary,  the 
proper  leaves  of  the  shoots,  not  as  foliage,  but  in  the 
shape  of  delicate  scales  in  spring,  which  soon  fall  away ; 
and  2.  secondary,  the  fascicled  leaves,  from  buds  in  the 
axils  of  the  former,  and  these  form  the  actual  foliage. 

184.  Spiral  Arrangement  of  Leaves.  If  we  examine  any 

alternate-leaved  stem,  we  shall  find  that  the  leaves  are 
placed  upon  it  in  symmetrical  order,  and  in  a way  per- 
fectly uniform  for  each  species,  but  different  in  different 
plants.  If  we  draw  a line  from  the  insertion  (i.  e.  the 
point  of  attachment)  of  one  leaf  to  that  of  the  next,  and 
so  on,  this  line  will  wind  spirally  around  the  stem  as  it 
rises,  and  in  the  same  species  will  always  have  just  the 
same  number  of  leaves  upon  it  for  each  turn  round  the 
stem.  That  is,  any  two  successive  leaves  will  always 
be  separated  from  each  other  by  just  an  equal  portion  ho 

of  the  circumference  of  the  stem.  The  distance  in  height  between 
any  two  leaves  may  vary  greatly,  even  on  the  same  shoot,  for  that 
depends  upon  the  length  of  the  internodes  or  spaces  between  each 
leaf;  but  the  distance  as  measured  around  the  circumference  (in 
other  words,  the  angular  divergence , or  angle  formed  by  any  two 
successive  leaves)  is  uniformly  the  same. 

185.  The  greatest  possible  divergence  is,  of  course,  where  the 
second  leaf  stands  on  exactly  the  opposite  side  of  the  stem  from  the 
first,  the  third  on  the  side  opposite  the  second,  and  therefore  over  the 

FIG.  140.  Piece  of  a branchlet  of  Pitch  Pine,  with  three  leaves  in  a fascicle  or  bundle,  in 
the  axil  of  a thin  scale  which  answers  to  a primary  leaf.  The  bundle  is  surrounded  at  the 
base  by  a short  sheath,  formed  of  the  delicate  scales  of  the  axillary  bud. 


LESSON  10.] 


IN  A SPIRAL  ORDER. 


73 


first,  and  the  fourth  over  the  second.  This  brings  all  the  leaves  into 
two  ranks,  one  on  one  side  of  the  stem  and  one  on  the  other ; and 
is  therefore  called  the  two-ranked  arrangement.  It  occurs  in  all 
Grasses,  — in  Indian  Corn,  for  instance  ; also  in  the  Spider  wort,  the 
Bellwort  (Fig.  131)  and  Iris  (Fig.  132),  in  the  Basswood  or  Lime- 
tree,  &c.  This  is  the  simplest  of  all  arrangements. 

186.  Next  to  this  is  the  three-ranked  arrangement,  such  as  we 
see  in  Sedges,  and  in  the  Yeratrum  or  White  Hellebore.  The  plan 
of  it  is  shown  on  a Sedge  in  Fig.  141,  and  in  a diagram  or  cross- 
section  underneath,  in  Fig.  142.  Here  the 
second  leaf  is  placed  one  third  of  the  way 
round  the  stem,  the  third  leaf  two  thirds  of 
the  way  round,  the  fourth  leaf  accordingly 
directly  over  the  first,  the  fifth  over  the 
second,  and  so  on.  That  is,  three  leaves 
occur  in  each  turn  round  the  stem,  and  they 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  one  third 
of  the  circumference. 

187.  The  next  and  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon is  the  jive-ranked  arrangement ; which 
is  seen  in  the  Apple  (Fig.  143),  Cherry, 

Poplar,  and  the  greater  part  of  our  trees 
and  shrubs.  In  this  case  the  line  traced 
from  leaf  to  leaf  will  pass  twice  round  the 
stem  before  it  reaches  a leaf  situated  di- 
rectly over  any  below  (Fig.  144).  Here 
the  sixth  leaf  is  over  the  first ; the  leaves 
stand  in  five  perpendicular  ranks,  equally 
distant  from  each  other ; and  the  distance 
between  any  two  successive  leaves  is  just 
two  fifths  of  the  circumference  of  the  stem.  142 

188.  The  five-ranked  arrangement  is  expressed  by  the  fraction  f. 
This  fraction  denotes  the  divergence  of  the  successive  leaves,  i.  e.  the 
angle  they  form  with  each  other : the  numerator  also  expresses  the 
number  of  turns  made  round  the  stem  by  the  spiral  line  in  complet- 
ing one  cycle  or  set  of  leaves,  namely  2 ; and  the  denominator  gives 
the  number  of  leaves  in  each  cycle,  or  the  number  of  perpendicular 

FIG.  141.  Piece  of  the  stalk  of  a Sedge,  with  the  leaves  cut  away,  leaving  their  bases  ; 
the  leaves  are  numbered  in  order,  from  1 to  6.  142.  Diagram  or  cross-section  of  the  same, 
all  in  one  plane  ; the  leaves  similarly  numbered. 

7 


74 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES  ON  THE  STEM.  [LESSON  10. 


ranks,  namely  5.  In  the  same  way  the  fraction  £ stands  for  the 
two-ranked  mode,  and  ^ for  the  three-ranked : and  so  these  different 
sorts  are  expressed  by  the  series  of  fractions 
•£,  f.  And  the  other  cases  known  follow  in  the 
same  numerical  progression. 

189.  The  next  is  the  eight-ranked  arrange- 
ment, where  the  ninth  leaf  stands  over  the  first, 
and  three  turns  are  made  around  the  stem  to 
reach  it ; so  it  is  expressed  by  the  fraction  -§. 
This  is  seen  in  the  Holly,  and  in  the  common 
Plantain.  Then  comes  the  thirteen-ranked  ar- 
rangement, in  which  the  fourteenth  leaf  is  over 
the  first,  after  five  turns  around  the  stem.  Of 
this  we  have  a good  example  in  the  common 
Houseleek  (Fig.  146). 

190.  The  series  so  far, 
then,  is  £,  £,  §,  f , T5¥ ; the 
numerator  and  the  denomi- 
nator of  each  fraction  being 
those  of  the  two  next  pre- 
ceding ones  added  together. 

At  this  rate  the  next  higher 
should  be  ^8X,  then  and 
so  on ; and  in  fact  just  such  140 

cases  are  met  with,  and  (commonly)  no  others. 
These  higher  sorts  are  found  in  the  Pine  Fam- 


ily, both  in  the  leaves  and  the  cones  (Fig.  324), 
and  in  many  other  plants  with  small  and  crowd- 
ed leaves.  But  the  number  of  the  ranks,  or  of 
leaves  in  each  cycle,  can  here  rarely  be  made 
out  by  direct  inspection:  they  may  be  ascer- 
tained, however,  by  certain  simple  mathematical 
computations,  which  are  rather  too  technical  for 
these  Lessons. 


FIG.  143.  Shoot  with  its  leaves  5-ranked,  the  sixth  leaf  over  the  first ; as  in  the  Apple-tree. 

FIG.  144.  Diagram  of  this  arrangement,  with  a spiral  line  drawn  from  the  attachment  of 
one  leaf  to  the  next,  and  so  on  ; the  parts  on  the  side  turned  from  the  eye  are  fainter. 

FIG.  145.  A ground-plan  of  the  same  ; the  section  of  the  leaves  similarly  numbered ; a 
dotted  line  drawn  from  the  edge  of  one  leaf  to  that  of  the  next  completes  the  spiral. 

FIG.  146.  A young  plant  of  the  Houseleek,  with  the  leaves  (not  yet  expanded)  numbered, 
and  exhibiting  the  13-ranked  arrangement. 


LESSON  10.]  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES  IN  THE  BUD.  75 

191.  The  arrangement  of  opposite  leaves  (181)  is  usually  very 
simple.  The  second  pair  is  placed  over  the  intervals  of  the  first ; 
the  third  over  the  intervals  of  the  second,  and  so  on  (Fig.  147)  ; the 
successive  pairs  thus  crossing  each  other,  — 
commonly  at  right  angles,  so  as  to  make  four 
upright  rows.  And  whorled  leaves  (Fig.  148) 
follow  a similar  plan. 

192.  So  the  place  of  every  leaf  on  every  plant 
is  fixed  beforehand  by  unerring  mathematical 
rule.  As  the  stem  grows  on,  leaf  after  leaf  ap- 
pears exactly  in  its  predes- 
tined place,  producing  a per- 
fect symmetry ; — a symme- 
try which  manifests  itself  not 
in  one  single  monotonous 
pattern  for  all  plants,  but  in 
a definite  number  of  forms 
exhibited  by  different  spe- 
cies, and  arithmetically  ex- 
pressed by  the  series  of  frac- 
tions, 4,  ij5  f , f,  ill’  &c.,  according  as  the  formative  energy  in 
its  spiral  course  up  the  developing  stem  lays  down  at  corresponding 
intervals  2,  3,  5,  8,  13,  or  21  ranks  of  alternate  leaves. 

193.  Vernation,  sometimes  called  Prcefoliation , relates  to  the  way 
in  which  leaves  are  disposed  in  the  bud  (180).  It  comprises  two 
things ; — 1st,  the  way  in  which  each  separate  leaf  is  folded,  coiled,  or 
packed  up  in  the  bud ; and  2d,  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  the 
bud  with  respect  to  one  another.  The  latter  of  course  depends  very 
much  upon  the  phyllotaxy,  i.  e.  the  position  and  order  of  the  leaves 
upon  the  stem.  The  same  terms  are  used  for  it  as  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  leaves  of  the  flower  in  the  flower-bud : so  we  may  pass 
them  by  until  we  come  to  treat  of  the  flower  in  this  respect. 

194.  As  to  each  leaf  separately,  it  is  sometimes  straight  and 

open  in  vernation,  but  more  commonly  it  is  either  bent , folded , or 
rolled  up . When  the  upper  part  is  bent  down  upon  the  lower, 

as  the  young  blade  in  the  Tulip-tree  is  bent  upon  the  leafstalk, 
it  is  said  to  be  infiexed  or  reclined  in  vernation.  When  folded 

FIG.  147.  Opposite  leaves  of  the  Spindle-tree  or  Burning-bush. 

FIG.  148.  Whorled  or  verticillate  leaves  of  Galium  or  Bedstraw. 


76  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS  ON  THE  STEM.  [LESSON  11. 

bj  the  midrib  so  that  the  two  halves  are  placed  face  to  face,  it  is 
conduplicate  (Fig.  149),  as  in  the  Magnolia,  the  Cherry,  and  the 
Oak : when  folded  back  and  forth  like  the  plaits  of  a fan,  it  is  plicate 
or  plaited  (Fig.  150),  as  in  the  Maple  and  Currant.  If  rolled, 
it  may  be  so  either  from  the  tip  downwards,  as  in  Ferns  and  the 
Sundew  (Fig.  154),  when  in  unrolling  it  resembles  the  head  of  a 
crosier,  and  is  said  to  be  circinate  ; or  it  may  be  rolled  up  parallel 
with  the  axis,  either  from  one  edge  into  a coil,  when  it  is  convolute 
(Fig.  151),  as  in  the  Apricot  and  Plum,  or  rolled  from  both  edges 
towards  the  midrib;  — sometimes  inwards,  when  it  is  involute  (Fig. 
152),  as  in  the  Violet  and  Water-Lily ; sometimes  outwards,  when 
it  is  revolute  (Fig.  153),  in  the  Rosemary  and  Azalea.  The  figures 
are  diagrams,  representing  sections  through  the  leaf,  in  the  way 
they  were  represented  by  Linnaeus. 


149  150  151 


154 


LESSON  XL 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS  ON  THE  STEM,  OR  INFLO- 
RESCENCE. 

195.  Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  vegetation  of  the 
plant,  and  studying  those  parts,  viz.  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  by  which 
it  increases  in  size  and  extent,  and  serves  the  purpose  of  its  indi- 
vidual life.  But  after  a time  each  plant  produces  a different  set  of 
organs,  — viz.  flowers,  fruit,  and  seed,  — subservient  to  a different 
purpose,  that  is,  the  increase  in  numbers,  or  the  continuance  of  the 


LESSON  11.]  INDETERMINATE  INFLORESCENCE.  77 

species.  The  plant  reproduces  itself  in  new  individuals  by  seed. 
Therefore  the  seed,  and  the  fruit  in  which  the  seed  is  formed,  and 
the  flower,  from  which  the  fruit  results,  are  named  the  Organs  of 
Reproduction  or  Fructification.  These  we  may  examine  in  succes- 
sion. We  begin,  of  course,  with  the  flower.  And  the  first  thing  to 
consider  is  the 

196.  Inflorescence,  or  the  mode  of  flowering,  that  is,  the  situation 
and  arrangement  of  blossoms  on  the  plant.  Various  as  this  arrange- 
ment may  seem  to  be,  all  is  governed  by  a simple  law,  which  is 
easily  understood.  As  the  position  of  every  leaf  is  fixed  beforehand 
by  a mathematical  law  which  prescribes  where  it  shall  stand  (192), 
so  is  that  of  every  blossom ; — and  by  the  same  law  in  both  cases. 
For  flowers  are  buds,  developed  in  a particular  way;  and  flower- 
buds  occupy  the  position  of  leaf-buds,  and  no  other  As  leaf-buds 
are  either  terminal  (at  the  summit  of  a stem  or  branch,  42),  or 
axillary  (in  the  axil  of  a leaf,  43),  so  likewise 

197.  Flowers  are  either  terminal  or  axillary.  In  blossoming  as 
in  vegetation  we  have  only  buds  terminating  (i.  e.  on  the  summit  of) 
stems  or  branches,  and  buds  from  the  axils  of  leaves.  But  while 
the  same  plant  commonly  produces  both  kinds  of  leaf-buds,  it  rarely 
bears  flowers  in  both  situations.  These  are  usually  either  all  axil- 
lary or  all  terminal;  — giving  rise  to  two  classes  of  inflorescence, 
viz.  the  determinate  and  the  indeterfninate. 

198.  Indeterminate  Inflorescence  is  that  where  the  flowers  all  arise 
from  axillary  buds;  as  in  Fig.  155,  156,  157,  &c. ; and  the  reason 
why  it  is  called  indetermi- 
nate (or  indefinite)  is,  that 
while  the  axillary  buds 
give  rise  to  flowers,  the 
terminal  bud  goes  on  to 
grow,  and  continues  the 
stem  indefinitely. 

199.  Where  the  flowers  arise,  as  in  Fig.  155,  singly  from  the 
axils  of  the  ordinary  leaves  of  the  plant,  they  do  not  form  flower- 
clusters,  but  are  axillary  and  solitary.  But  when  several  or  many 
flowers  are  produced  near  each  other,  the  accompanying  leaves  are 
usually  of  smaller  size,  and  often  of  a different  shape  or  character : 
then  they  are  called  bracts ; and  the  flowers  thus  brought  together 

FIG.  155  Moneywort  (Lysimachia  nummularia)  of  the  gardens,  with  axillary  flowers. 

7* 


78  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS  ON  THE  STEM.  [LESSON  11. 

form  one  cluster  or  inflorescence.  The  sorts  of  inflorescence  of  the 
indeterminate  class  which  have  received  separate  names  are  chiefly 
the  following : viz.  the  Raceme , the  Corymb , the  Umbel , the  Spike , 
the  Head , the  Spadix , the  Catkin,  and  the  Panicle. 

200.  Before  illustrating  these,  one  or  two  terms,  of  common  oc- 
currence, may  be  defined.  A flower  (or  other  body)  which  has  no 
stalk  to  support  it,  but  which  sits  directly  on  the  stem  or  axis  it  pro- 
ceeds from,  is  said  to  be  sessile.  If  it  has  a stalk,  this  is  called  its 
peduncle.  If  the  whole  flower-cluster  is  raised  on  a stalk,  this  is 
called  the  peduncle,  or  the  common  peduncle  (Fig.  156,  p) ; and  the 
stalk  of  each  particular  flower,  if  it  have  any,  is  called 
the  pedicel  or  partial  peduncle  (p1).  The  portion 
of  the  general  stalk  along  which  flowers  are  dis- 
posed is  called  the  axis  of  inflorescence,  or,  when  cov- 
ered with  sessile  flowers,  the  rhachis  (back-bone),  and 
sometimes  the  receptacle.  The  leaves  of  a flower- 
cluster  generally  are  termed  bracts.  But  when  we 
wish  particularly  to  distinguish  them,  those  on  the 
peduncle,  or  main  axis,  and  which  have  a flower  in 
their  axil,  take  the  name  of  bracts  (Fig.  156,  b) ; and 
those  on  the  pedicels  or  partial  flower-stalks,  if  any, 
that  of  bractlets  (Fig.  156,  b'). 

201.  A Raceme  (Fig.  156, 157)  is  that  form  of  flower- 
cluster  in  which  the  flowers,  each  on  their  own  foot- 
stalk or  pedicel,  are  arranged  along  a common  stalk 
or  axis  of  inflorescence ; as  in  the  Lily  of  the  Valley, 
Currant,  Choke-Cherry,  Barberry,  &c.  Each  flower 
comes  from  the  axil  of  a small  leaf,  or  bract,  which, 
however,  is  often  so  small  that  it  might  escape  notice, 
and  which  sometimes  (as  in  the  Mustard  Family)  disappears  alto- 
gether. The  lowest  blossoms  of  a raceme  are  of  course  the  oldest, 
and  therefore  open  first,  and  the  order  of  blossoming  is  ascending, 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  summit,  never  being  stopped  by 
a terminal  flower,  may  go  on  to  grow,  and  often  does  so  (as  in  the 
common  Shepherd’s  Purse),  producing  lateral  flowers  one  after  an- 
other the  whole  summer  long. 

202.  All  the  various  kinds  of  flower-clusters  pass  one  into  another 

FIG.  156.  A Raceme,  with  a general  peduncle  (p),  pedicels  (p'),  bracts  (ft),  and  bract- 
lets  (ft'). 


i 


LESSON  11.]  RACEME,  CORYMB,  UMBEL,  ETC.  79 

by  intermediate  gradations  of  every  sort.  For  instance,  if  we 
lengthen  the  lower  pedicels  of  a raceme,  and  keep  the  main  axis 
rather  short,  it  is  converted  into 

203.  A Corymb  (Fig.  158).  This  is  the  same  as  a raceme,  except 
that  it  is  flat  and  broad,  either  convex,  or  level-topped,  as  in  the 
Hawthorn,  owing  to  the  lengthening  of  the  lower  pedicels  while  the 
uppermost  remain  shorter. 

204.  The  main  axis  of  a corymb  is  short,  at  least  in  comparison 
with  the  lower  pedicels.  Only  suppose  it  to  be  so  much  contracted 
that  the  bracts  are  all  brought  into  a cluster  or  circle,  and  the 
corymb  becomes 

205.  An  Umbel  (Fig.  159),  — as  in  the  Milkweed  and  Primrose, 
— a sort  of  flower-cluster  where  the  pedicels  all  spring  apparently 
from  the  same  point,  from  the  top  of  the  peduncle,  so  as  to  resemble, 
when  spreading,  the  rays  of  an  umbrella,  whence  the  name.  Here 
the  pedicels  are  sometimes  called  the  rays  of  the  umbel.  And  the 
bracts,  when  brought  in  this  way  into  a cluster  or  circle,  form  what 
is  called  an  involucre. 


206.  For  the  same  reason  that  the  order  of  blossoming  in  a ra- 
ceme is  ascending  (201),  in  the  corymb  and  umbel  it  is  centripetal , 
that  is,  it  proceeds  from  the  margin  or  circumference  regularly  to- 
wards the  centre ; the  lower  flowers  of  the  former  answering  to  the 
outer  ones  of  the  latter.  Indeterminate  inflorescence,  therefore,  is 
said  to  be  centripetal  in  evolution.  And  by  having  this  order  of 
blossoming,  all  the  sorts  may  be  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
other,  or  the  determinate  class.  In  all  the  foregoing  cases  the 
flowers  are  raised  on  pedicels.  These,  however,  are  very  short  in 
many  instances,  or  are  wanting  altogether;  when  the  flowers  are 
sessile  (200).  They  are  so  in 


FIG.  157.  A raceme.  158.  A corymb.  159.  An  umbel. 


80  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS  ON  THE  STEM.  [LESSON  11. 


207.  The  Spike.  This  is  a flower-cluster  with  a more  or  less 
lengthened  axis,  along  which  the  flowers  are  sessile  or 
nearly  so;  as  in  the  Mullein  and  the  Plantain  (Fig.  160). 
It  is  just  the  same  as  a raceme,  therefore,  without  any 
pedicels  to  the  flowers. 

208.  The  Head  is  a round  or  roundish  cluster  of  flowers 
which  are  sessile  on  a very  short  axis  or  receptacle,  as  in 
the  Button-ball,  Button-bush  (Fig.  161),  and  Red  Clover. 
It  is  just  what  a spike  would  become  if  its  axis  were 
shortened ; or  an  umbel,  if  its  pedicels  were  all  shortened 
until  the  flowers  became  sessile  or  apparently  so.  The 
head  of  the  Button-bush  (Fig.  161)  is  naked  ; but  that  of 
the  Thistle,  of  the  Dandelion,  the  Cichory  (Fig.  221), 
and  the  like,  is  surrounded  by  empty  bracts,  which  form 
an  involucre.  Two  particular  forms  of  the  spike  and  the 
head  have  received  particular  names,  namely,  the  Spadix 
160  and  the  Catkin. 

209.  A Spadix  is  nothing  but  a fleshy  spike  or  head,  with  small 
and  often  imperfect  flowers,  as  in  the  Calla,  the  Indian  Turnip 


(Fig.  162),  Sweet  Flag,  &c.  It  is  commonly  covered  by  a peculiar 
enveloping  leaf,  called  a spathe. 

FIG.  160.  Spike  of  the  common  Plantain  or  Ribwort. 

FIG.  161.  Head  of  the  Button-bush  (Cephalanthus). 

FIG.  162.  Spadix  and  spathe  of  the  Indian  Turnip ; the  latter  cut  through  below. 


LESSON  11.] 


DETERMINATE  INFLORESCENCE. 


81 


210.  A Catkin  or  Ament  is  the  name  given  to  the  scaly  sort  of  spike 
of  the  Birch  and  Alder,  the  Willow  and  Poplar,  and  one  sort  of 
flower-clusters  of  the  Oak,  Hickory,  and  the  like ; — on  which  ac- 
count these  are  called  Amentaceous  trees. 

211.  Sometimes  these  forms  of  flower-clusters  become  compound . 
For  example,  the  stalks  which,  in  the  simple  umbel  such  as  has 
been  described  (Fig.  159),  are  the  pedicels  of  single  flowers,  may 
themselves  branch  in  the  same  way  at  the  top,  and  so  each  become 
the  support  of  a smaller  umbel ; as  is  the  case  in  the  Parsnip,  Cara- 
way, and  almost  the  whole  of  the  great  family  of  what  are  called 
Umbelliferous  (i.  e.  umbel-bearing)  plants.  Here  the  whole  is 
termed  a compound  umbel;  and  the  smaller  or  partial  umbels  take 
the  name  in  English  of  umbellets.  The  general  involucre , at  the 
base  of  the  main  umbel,  keeps  that  name ; while  that  at  the  base 
of  each  umbellet  is  termed  a partial  involucre  or  an  involucel. 

212.  So  a corymb  (Fig.  158)  with  its  separate  stalks  branching 
again,  and  bearing  smaller  clusters  of  the  same 
sort,  is  a compound  corymb ; of  which  the  Moun- 
tain Ash  is  a good  example.  A raceme  where 
what  would  be  the  pedicels  of  single  flowers 
become  stalks,  along  which  flowers  are  disposed 
on  their  own  pedicels,  forms  a compound  raceme , 
as  in  the  Goat’s-beard  and  the  False  Spikenard. 
But  when  what  would  have  been  a raceme  or  a 
corymb  branches  irregularly  into  an  open  and 
more  or  less  compound  flower-cluster,  we  have 
what  is  called 

213.  A Panicle  (Fig.  163)  ; as  in  the  Oat  and 
in  most  common  Grasses.  Such  a raceme  as  that 
of  the  diagram,  Fig.  156,  would  be  changed  into 
a panicle  like  Fig.  163,  by  the  production  of  a 
flower  from  the  axil  of  each  of  the  bractlets  V. 

214.  A Thyrsus  is  a compact  panicle  of  a pyram- 
idal or  oblong  shape ; such  as  a bunch  of  grapes, 
or  the  cluster  of  the  Lilac  or  Horsechestnut. 

215.  Determinate  Inflorescence  is  that  in  which  the  flowers  are  from 
terminal  buds.  The  simplest  case  is  where  a stem  bears  a soli- 
tary, terminal  flower,  as  in  Fig.  163a.  This  stops  the  growth  of 


FIG.  163.  A Panicle. 


82  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FLOWERS  ON  THE  STEM.  [LESSON  11. 

the  stem ; for  its  terminal  bud,  being  changed  into  a blossom,  can 
no  more  lengthen  in  the  manner  of  a leaf-bud.  Any  further  growth 

b a b c b c a e b c 


163  a 164  165 

must  be  from  axillary  buds  developing  into  branches.  If  such 
branches  are  leafy  shoots,  at  length  terminated  by  single  blossoms, 
the  inflorescence  still  consists  of  solitary  flowers  at  the  summit  of  the 
stem  and  branches.  But  if  the  flowering  branches  bear  only  bracts 
in  place  of  ordinary  leaves,  the  result  is  the  kind  of  flower-cluster 

216.  A Cyme.  This  is  commonly  a flat-topped  or  con- 
vex flower-cluster,  like  a corymb,  only  the  blossoms  are 
from  terminal  buds.  Fig.  164  illustrates  the  simplest 
cyme  in  a plant  with  opposite  leaves,  namely,  with  three 
flowers.  The  middle  flower,  a,  terminates  the  stem ; 
the  two  others,  b b,  terminate  short  branches,  one  from 
the  axil  of  each  of  the  uppermost  leaves;  and  being 
later  than  the  middle  one,  the  flowering  proceeds  from 
the  centre  outwards,  or  is  centrifugal;  — just  the  op- 
posite of  the  indeterminate  mode,  or  that  where  all 
the  flower-buds  are  axillary.  If  flowering  branches 
appear  from  the  axils  below,  the  lower  ones  are  the 
later,  so  that  the  order  of  blossoming  continues  centrif- 
ugal or  descending  (which  is  the  same  thing),  as  in  Fig.  166,  mak- 
ing a sort  of  reversed  raceme ; — a kind  of  cluster  which  is  to  the 
true  raceme  just  what  the  flat  cyme  is  to  the  corymb. 

217.  Wherever  there  are  bracts  or  leaves,  buds  may  be  produced 
from  their  axils  and  appear  as  flowers.  Fig.  165  represents  the 
case  where  the  branches,  b b,  of  Fig.  164,  each  with  a pair  of  small 

FIG.  163  a.  Diagram  of  an  opposite-leaved  plant,  with  a single  terminal  flower.  164. 
Same,  with  a cyme  of  three  flowers  ; a,  the  first  flower,  of  the  main  axis ; b b,  those  of  branches. 
165.  Same,  with  flowers  of  the  third  order,  c c.  166.  Same,  with  flowers  only  of  the  second 
order  from  all  the  axils  ; the  central  or  uppermost  opening  first,  and  so  on  downwards. 


called 


166 


LESSON  11.] 


SORTS  OF  FLOWER-CLUSTERS. 


83 


leaves  or  bracts  about  their  middle,  have  branched  again,  and  pro- 
duced the  branchlets  and  flowers  c c,  on  each  side.  It  is  the  con- 
tinued repetition  of  this  which  forms  the  full  or  compound  cyme, 
such  as  that  of  the  Laurustinus,  Hobblebush,  Dogwood,  and  Hy- 
drangea (Fig.  167). 

218.  A Fascicle,  like  that  of  the  Sweet-William  and  Lychnis  of 
the  gardens,  is  only  a cyme  with  the  flowers  much  crowded,  as  it 
were,  into  a bundle. 

219.  A Glomerule  is  a cyme  still  more  compacted,  so  as  to  form  a 
sort  of  head.  It  may  be  known  from  a true  head  by  the  flowers 
not  expanding  centripetally,  that  is,  not  from  the  circumference  to- 
wards the  centre,  or  from  the  bottom  to  the  top. 

220.  The  illustrations  of  determinate  or  cymose  inflorescence  have 
been  taken  from  plants  with  opposite  leaves,  which  give  rise  to  the 
most  regular  cymes.  But  the  Rose,  Cinquefoil,  Buttercup,  and  the 
like,  with  alternate  leaves,  furnish  equally  good  examples  of  this 
class  of  flower-clusters. 

221.  It  may  be  useful  to  the  student  to  exhibit  the  principal  sorts 
of  inflorescence  in  one  view,  in  the  manner  of  the  following 

Analysis  of  Flower-Clusters. 


I.  Indeterminate  or  Centripetal.  (198.) 
Simple ; and  with  the 

Flowers  borne  on  pedicels, 


Along  the  sides  of  a lengthened  axis, 

Raceme, 

201. 

Along  a short  axis  ; lower  pedicels  lengthened, 

Corymb, 

203. 

Clustered  on  an  extremely  short  axis, 

Umbel, 

205. 

Flowers  sessile,  without  pedicels  (206), 

Along  an  elongated  axis, 

Spike, 

207. 

On  a very  short  axis, 

Head, 

208. 

with  their  varieties,  the  Spadix,  209,  and 

Catkin, 

210. 

Branching  irregularly, 

Panicle, 

213. 

with  its  variety,  the 

Thyrsus, 

214. 

II.  Determinate  or  Centrifugal.  (215.) 

Open,  mostly  flat-topped  or  convex, 

Cyme, 

216. 

Contracted  into  a bundle, 

Fascicle, 

218. 

Contracted  into  a sort  of  head, 

Glomerule,  219. 

222.  The  numbers  refer  to  the  paragraphs  of  this  Lesson,  The 
various  sorts  run  together  by  endless  gradations  in  different  plants. 
The  botanist  merely  designates  the  leading  kinds  by  particular 
names.  Even  the  two  classes  of  inflorescence  are  often  found  com- 
bined in  the  same  plant.  For  instance,  in  the  whole  Mint  Family, 


84 


THE  FLOWER. 


[lesson  12. 


the  flower-clusters  are  centrifugal,  that  is,  are  cymes  or  fascicles ; 
but  they  are  themselves  commonly  disposed  in  spikes  or  racemes, 
which  are  centripetal,  or  develop  in  succession  from  below  up- 
wards. 


167 


LESSON  XII. 

THE  flower:  its  parts  or  organs. 

228.  Having  considered,  in  the  last  Lesson,  the  arrangement  of 
flowers  on  the  stem,  or  the  places  from  which  they  arise,  we  now 
direct  our  attention  to  the  flower  itself. 

224.  Nature  and  Use  of  the  Flower.  The  object  of  the  flower  is  the 
production  of  seed.  The  flower  consists  of  all  those  parts,  or  organs , 
which  are  subservient  to  this  end.  Some  of  these  parts  are  neces- 
sary to  the  production  of  seed.  Others  serve  merely  to  protect  or 
support  the  more  essential  parts. 


FIG.  167.  Cyme  of  the  Wild  Hydrangea  (with  neutral  flowers  in  the  border). 


LESSON  12.] 


ITS  PARTS  OR  ORGANS* 


85 


225.  TllC  Organs  Of  the  Flower  are  therefore  of  two  kinds ; namely, 
first,  the  'protecting  organs , or  leaves  of  the  flower , — also  called  the 
floral  envelopes , — and,  second,  the  essential  organs.  The  latter  are 
situated  within  or  a little  above  the  former,  and  are  enclosed  by  them 
in  the  bud. 

226.  The  Floral  Envelopes  in  a complete  flower  are  double  ; that  is, 
they  consist  of  two  whorls  (181),  or  circles  of  leaves,  one  above  or 
within  the  other.  The  outer  set  forms  the  Calyx ; this  more  com- 
monly consists  of  green  or  greenish  leaves,  but  not  always.  The 
inner  set,  usually  of  a delicate  texture,  and  of  some  other  color  than 
green,  and  in  most  cases  forming  the  most  showy  part  of  the  blos- 
som, is  the  Corolla. 

227.  The  floral  envelopes,  taken  together,  are  sometimes  called  the 
Perianth.  This  name  is  not  much  used,  however,  except  in  cases 
where  they  form  only  one  set,  at  least  in  appearance,  as  in  the  Lily, 
or  where,  for  some  other  reason,  the  limits  between  the  calyx  and 
the  corolla  are  not  easily  made  out. 

228.  Each  leaf  or  separate  piece  of  the  corolla  is  called  a Petal ; 
each  leaf  of  the  calyx  is  called  a Sepal.  The  sepals  and  the  petals 
— or,  in  other  words,  the  leaves  of  the  blossom  — serve  to  protect, 
support,  or  nourish  the  parts  within.  They  do  not  themselves  make 
a perfect  flower. 

229.  Some  plants,  however,  naturally  produce,  besides  their  per- 
fect flowers,  others  which  consist  only  of  calyx  and  corolla  (one  or 
both),  that  is,  of  leaves.  These,  destitute  as  they  are  of  the  essential 
organs,  and  incapable  of  producing  seed,  are  called  neutral  flowers. 
We  have  an  example  in  the  flowers  round  the  margin  of  the  cyme  of 
the  Hydrangea  (Fig.  167),  and  of  the  Cranberry-Tree,  or  Snowball, 
in  their  wild  state.  By  long  cultivation  in  gardens  the  whole  cluster 
has  been  changed  into  showy,  but  useless,  neutral  flowers,  in  these 
and  some  other  cases.  What  are  called  double  flowers , such  as  full 
Boses  (Fig.  173),  Buttercups,  and  Camellias,  are  blossoms  which, 
under  the  gardener’s  care,  have  developed  with  all  their  essential 
organs  changed  into  petals.  But  such  flowers  are  always  in  an 
unnatural  or  monstrous  condition,  and  are  incapable  of  maturing 
seed,  for  want  of 

230.  The  Essential  Organs.  These  are  likewise  of  two  kinds,  placed 
one  above  or  within  the  other ; namely,  first,  the  Stamens  or  fertil- 
izing organs,  and,  second,  the  Pistils,  which  are  to  be  fertilized  and 
bear  the  seeds. 


86 


THE  FLOWER. 


[lesson  12. 


231.  Taking  them  in  succession,  therefore,  beginning  from  below, 
or  at  the  outside,  we  have  (Fig.  168,  169),  first,  the  calyx  or  outer 

circle  of  leaves,  which  are  individually- 
termed  sepals  (a)  ; secondly,  the  corolla 
or  inner  circle  of  delicate  leaves,  called 
petals  (b)  ; then  a set  of  stamens  ( c ) ; 
and  in  the  centre  one  or  more  pistils  ( d ). 
The  end  of  the  flower-stalk,  or  the  short 
axis,  upon  which  all  these  parts  stand,  is 
called  thfe  Torus  or  Receptacle. 

232.  We  use  here  for  illus- 
tration the  flower  of  a spe- 
cies of  Stonecrop  (Sedum  ter- 
natum),  — which  is  a com- 
mon plant  wild  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  in  gardens  almost 
everywhere,  — because,  al- 
though small,  it  exhibits  all 
the  parts  in  a perfectly  simple  and  separate  state,  and  so  answers  for 
a sort  of  pattern  flower,  better  than  any  larger  one  that  is  common 


and  well  known. 

233.  A Stameil  consists  of  two  parts, 
namely,  the  Filament  or  stalk  (Fig.  170, 
a ),  and  the  Anther  (b).  The  latter  is 
the  only  essential  part.  It  is  a case, 
commonly  with  two  lobes. or  cells,  each 
opening  lengthwise  by  a slit,  at  the 
proper  time,  and  discharging  a pow- 
der or  dust-like  substance,  usually  of  a yellow  color.  This  powder 
is  the  Pollen,  or  fertilizing  matter,  to  produce  which  is  the  sole  office 
of  the  stamen. 

234.  A Pistil  is  distinguished  into  three  parts  ; namely,  — beginning 
from  below,  — the  Ovary , the  Style,  and  the  Stigma.  The  Ovary  is 
the  hollow  case  or  young  pod  (Fig.  171,  a),  containing  rudimentary 
seeds,  called  Ovules  ( d ).  Fig.  172,  representing  a pistil  like  that  of 


FIG.  168.  Flower  of  a Stonecrop  : Sedum  ternatum. 

FIG.  169.  Two  parts  of  each  kind  of  the  same  flower,  displayed  and  enlarged. 

FIG.  170.  A stamen  : a,  the  filament;  &,  the  anther,  discharging  pollen. 

FIG.  171.  A pistil  divided  lengthwise,  showing  the  interior  of  the  ovary,  a,  and  its 
ovules,  d ; b , the  style  ; c,  stigma. 

FIG.  172.  A pistil,  enlarged  ; the  ovary  cut  across  to  show  the  ovules  within. 

FIG.  173.  “ Double  ” Rose  ; the  essential  organs  all  replaced  by  petals. 


LESSON  12.] 


ITS  PARTS  OR  ORGANS. 


87 


Fig.  169,  d , but  on  a larger  scale,  and  with  the  ovary  cut  across, 
shows  the  ovules  as  they  appear  in  a transverse 
section.  The  style  (Fig.  171,  b)  is  the  tapering 
part  above,  sometimes  long  and  slender,  sometimes 
short,  and  not  rarely  altogether  wanting,  for  it  is 
not  an  essential  part,  like  the  two  others.  The 
stigma  (c)  is  the  tip  or  some  other  portion  of  the 
style  (or  of  the  top  of  the  ovary  when  there  is  no 
distinct  style),  consisting  of  loose  tissue,  not  cov- 
ered, like  the  rest  of  the  plant,  by  a skin  or  epi- 
dermis. It  is  upon  the  stigma  that  the  pollen 
falls ; and  the  result  is,  that  the  ovules  contained 
in  the  ovary  are  fertilized  and  become  seeds,  by 
having  an  embryo  (16)  formed  in  them.  To  the 
pistil,  therefore,  all  the  other  organs  of  the  blos- 
som are  in  some  way  or  other  subservient : the 
stamens  furnish  pollen  to  fertilize  its  ovules ; the 
corolla  and  the  calyx  form  coverings  which  pro- 
tect the  whole. 

234a.  These  are  all  the  parts  which  belong  to  any  flower.  But 
these  parts  appear  under  a variety  of  forms  and  combinations,  some 
of  them  greatly  disguising  their  natural  appearance.  To  understand 
the  flower,  therefore,  under  whatever  guise  it  may  assume,  we  must 
study  its  plan. 


173 


88 


PLAN  OP  THE  FLOWER. 


[lesson  13. 


LESSON  XIII. 

THE  PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

235.  The  Flower,  like  every  other  part  of  the  plant,  is  formed 
upon  a plan , which  is  essentially  the  same  in  all  blossoms ; and  the 
student  should  early  get  a clear  idea  of  the  plan  of  the  flower.  Then 
the  almost  endless  varieties  which  different  blossoms  present  will  be 
at  once  understood  whenever  they  occur,  and  will  be  regarded  with 
a higher  interest  than  their  most  beautiful  forms  and  richest  colors 
are  able  to  inspire. 

236.  We  have  already  become  familiar  with  the  plan  of  the  vege- 
tation ; — with  the  stem,  consisting  of  joint  raised  upon  joint,  each 
bearing  a leaf  or  a pair  of  leaves  ; with  the  leaves  arranged  in  sym- 
metrical order,  every  leaf  governed  by  a simple  arithmetical  law, 
which  fixes  beforehand  the  precise  place  it  is  to  occupy  on  the  stem; 
and  we  have  lately  learned  (in  Lesson  11)  how  the  position  of  each 
blossom  is  determined  beforehand  by  that  of  the  leaves  ; so  that  the 
shape  of  every  flower-cluster  in  a bouquet  is  given  by  the  same  sim- 
ple mathematical  law  which  arranges  the  foliage.  Let  us  now  con- 
template the  flower  in  a similar  way.  Having  just  learned  what 
parts  it  consists  of,  let  us  consider  the  plan  upon  which  it  is  made, 
and  endeavor  to  trace  this  plan  through  some  of  the  various  forms 
which  blossoms  exhibit  to  our  view. 

237.  In  order  to  give  at  the  outset  a correct  idea  of  the  blossom, 
we  took,  in  the  last  Lesson,  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  its  parts,  a 
perfect , complete , regular , and  symmetrical  flower,  and  one  nearly  as 
simple  as  such  a flower  could  well  be.  Such  a blossom  the  botanist 
regards  as 

238.  A Typical  Flower,  that  is,  a pattern  flower , because  it  well  ex- 
emplifies the  plan  upon  which  all  flowers  are  made,  and  serves  as 
what  is  called  a type , or  standard  of  comparison. 

239.  Another  equally  good  typical  flower  (except  in  a single  re- 
spect, which  will  hereafter  be  mentioned),  and  one  readily  to  be  ob- 
tained in  the  summer,  is  that  of  the  Flax  (Fig.  174).  The  parts 
differ  in  shape  from  those  of  the  Stonecrop  ; but  the  whole  plan  is 
evidently  just  the  same  in  both.  Only,  while  the  Stonecrop  has  ten 
stamens,  or  in  many  flowers  eight  stamens,  — in  all  cases  just  twice 


LESSON  13.]  PERFECT  AND  IMPERFECT  FLOWERS. 


89 


as  many  as  there  are  petals,  — the  Flax  has  only  five  stamens,  or 
just  as  many  as  the  petals.  Such  flowers  as  these  are  said  to  be 

Perfect , because  they  are 
provided  with  both  kinds  of 
essential  organs  (230),  namely, 
stamens  and  pistils ; 

Complete , because  they  have 
all  the  sorts  of  organs  which 
any  flower  has,  namely,  both 
calyx  and  corolla,  as  well  as 
stamens  and  pistils ; 

Regular , because  all  the  parts 
of  each  set  are  alike  in  shape  and  size ; and 

Symmetrical , because  they  have  an  equal  number  of  parts  of  each 
sort,  or  in  each  set  or  circle  of 
organs.  That  is,  there  are  five 
sepals,  five  petals,  five  stamens, 
or  in  the  Stonecrop  ten  stamens 
(namely,  two  sets  of  five  each), 
and  five  pistils. 

240.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  flowers  do  not  present 
this  perfect  symmetry  and  reg- 

176  ularity,  or  this  completeness  of  parts.  Accord- 

ingly, we  may  have 

241.  Imperfect,  or  Separated  Flowers ; which  are 
those  where  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  separate 
blossoms ; that  is,  one  sort  of  flowers  has  stamens 
and  no  pistils,  and  another  has  pistils  and  no  sta- 
mens, or  only  imperfect  ones.  The  blossom  which 
has  stamens  but  no  pistils  is  called  a staminate  or 
sterile  flower  (Fig.  176)  ; and  the  corresponding 
one  with  pistils  but  no  stamens  is  called  a pistil- 
late or  fertile  flower  (Fig.  177).  The  two  sorts 
may  grow  on  distinct  plants,  from  different  roots, 
as  they  do  in  the  Willow  and  Poplar,  the  Hemp,  and  the  Moonseed 

FIG.  174.  Flowers  of  the  common  Flax : a perfect,  complete,  regular,  and  symmetrical 
blossom,  all  its  parts  in  fives.  175.  Half  of  a Flax-flower  divided  lengthwise,  and  enlarged. 

FIG.- 176.  Staminate  flower  of  Moonseed  (Menispermum  Canadense).  177.  Pistillate 
flower  of  the  same. 


8 * 


90 


PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER. 


[LESSON  13. 


(Fig.  176, 177)  ; when  the  flowers  are  said  to  be  dioecious  (from  two 
Greek  words  meaning  in  two  households).  Or  the  two  may  occur 

on  the  same  plant 
or  the  same  stem, 
as  in  the  Oak, 
Walnut,  Nettle, 
and  the  Castor-oil 
Plant  (Fig.  178) ; 
when  the  flowers 
are  said  to  be  mo- 
noecious (that  is,  in  one  household).  A flower 
may,  however,  be  perfect , that  is,  have  both 
stamens  and  pistils,  and  yet  be  incomplete. 

242.  Incomplete  Flowers  are  those  in  which 
one  or  both  sorts  of  the  floral  envelopes,  or 
leaves  of  the  blossom,  are  wanting.  Some- 
times only  one  sort  is  wanting,  as  in  the 
Castor-oil  Plant  (Fig.  178)  and  in  the  Anem- 
one (Fig.  179).  In  this  case  the  missing 
sort  is  always  supposed  to  be  the  inner,  that  is,  the  corolla ; and 
accordingly  such  flowers  are  said  to  be  apetalous  (meaning  without 
petals).  Occasionally  both  the  corolla  and  the  calyx  are  wanting, 
when  the  flower  has  no  proper  cover- 
ings or  floral  envelopes  at  all.  It  is  then 
said  to  be  naked , as  in  the  Lizard’s- 
tail  (Fig.  180),  and  in  the  Willow. 

243.  Our  two  pattern  flowers  (Fig. 

168,  174)  are  regular  and  symmetrical 
(239).  We  commonly 
expect  this  to  be  the 
case  in  living  things. 

The  corresponding 

parts  of  plants,  like  the  limbs  or  members  of  ani- 
mals, are  generally  alike,  and  the  whole  arrange- 
ment is  symmetrical.  This  symmetry  pervades 
the  blossom,  especially.  But  the  student  may  often  fail  to  perceive 

FIG.  178.  Monoecious  flowers,  i.  e.  one  staminate  (s)  and  one  pistillate  ( p ) flower,  of 
the  Castor-oil  Plant,  growing  on  the  same  stem. 

FIG.  179.  Apetalous  (incomplete)  flower  of  Anemone  Pennsylvanica. 

FIG.  180.  A naked  (but  perfect)  flower  of  the  Lizard’s-tail. 


LESSON  13.]  IRREGULAR  AND  UNSYMMETRICAL  FLOWERS 


91 


it,  at  first  view,  at  least  in  cases  where  the  plan  is  more  or  less 
obscured  by  the  leaving  out  ( obliteration ) of  one  or  more  of  the 
members  of  the  same  set,  or  by  some  in- 
equality in  their  size  and  shape.  The 
latter  circumstance  gives  rise  to 

244.  Irregular  Flowers,  This  name  is 
given  to  blossoms  in  which  the  different 
members  of  the  same  sort,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  petals  or  the  stamens,  are  unlike 
in  size  or  in  form.  We  have  familiar 

cases  of  the 
sort  in  the 
Larkspur 
(Fig.  183, 

184),  and 
Monkshood 
(Fig.  185, 

186)  ; also 
in  the  Vio- 
let (Fig.  181,  182).  In  the  latter  it 
is  the  corolla  principally  which  is  ir- 
regular, one  of  the  petals  being  larger 
than  the  rest,  and  extended  at  the 
base  into  a hollow  protuberance  or 
spur.  In  the  Larkspur  (Fig.  183), 
both  the  calyx  and  the  corolla  par- 
take of  the  irregularity.  This  and 
the  Monkshood  are  likewise  good  ex- 
amples of 

245.  Unsymmetrical  Flowers.  We 
call  them  unsymmetrical,  when  the 
different  sets  of  organs  do  not  agree 
in  the  number  of  their  parts.  The 
irregular  calyx  of  Larkspur  (Fig.  183,  184)  consists  of  five  sepals, 
one  of  which,  larger  than  the  rest,  is  prolonged  behind  into  a large 
spur;  but  the  corolla  is  made  of  only  four  petals  (of  two  shapes) ; 


FIG.  18L  Flower  of  a Violet.  182.  Its  calyx  and  corolla  displayed:  the  five  smaller 
parts  are  the  sepals  ; the  five  intervening  larger  ones  are  the  petals. 

FIG.  183.  Flower  of  a Larkspur.  184.  Its  calyx  and  corolla  displayed  ; the  five  larger 
pieces  are  the  sepals ; the  four  smaller,  the  petals. 


92 


PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER. 


[LESSON  13. 


the  fifth,  needed  to  complete  the  symmetry,  being  left  out.  And 
the  Monkshood  (Fig.  185,  186)  has  five  very  dissimilar  sepals, 
and  a corolla  of  only  two,  very  small, 
curiously-shaped  petals ; the  three  need- 
ed to  make  up  the  symmetry  being  left 
out.  For  a flower  which  is  unsymmet- 
rical  but  regular,  we  may  take  the  com- 
mon Purslane,  which  has  a calyx  of 
only  two  sepals,  but  a corolla  of  five 
petals,  from  seven  to  twelve  stamens, 
and  about  six  styles.  The  Mustard, 
and  all  flowers  of  that  family,  are  un- 
symmetrical  as  to  the  stamens,  these 
being  six  in  number  (Fig.  188,  while 
the  leaves  of  the  blossom  (sepals  and 
petals)  are  each  only  four 
(Fig.  187).  Here  the 
stamens  are  irregular  also, 
two  of  them  being  shorter 
than  the  other  four. 

246.  Numerical  Plan  of 
the  Flower.  Although  not 
easy  to  make  out  in  all 
cases,  yet  generally  it  is 
plain  to  see  that  each 
blossom  is  based  upon  a particular  number,  which 
runs  through  all  or  most  of  its  parts.  And  a prin- 
cipal thing  which  a botanist  notices  when  ecsamin- 
ing  a flower  is  its  numerical  plan.  It  is  upon  this 
that  the  symmetry  of  the  blossom  depends.  Our  two 
pattern  flowers,  the  Stonecrop  (Fig.  168)  and  the 
Flax  (Fig.  174),  are  based  upon  the  number  five, 
which  is  exhibited  in  all  their  parts.  Some  flowers  of  this  same 
Stonecrop  have  their  parts  in  fours,  and  then  that  number  runs 
throughout ; namely,  there  are  four  sepals,  four  petals,  eight  stamens 
(two  sets),  and  four  pistils.  The  Mustard  (Fig.  187,  188),  Radish, 


FIG.  185.  Flower  of  a Monkshood.  186.  Its  parts  displayed  : the  five  larger  pieces  are  the 
sepals  ; the  two  small  ones  under  the  hood  are  petals ; the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  the 
centre. 

FIG.  187.  Flower  of  Mustard.  188.  Its  stamens  and  pistil  separate  and  enlarged. 


LESSON  13.]  THE  RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  ITS  PARTS. 


93 


&c.,  also  have  their  flowers  constructed  on  the  plan  of  four  as  to  the 
calyx  and  corolla,  but  this  number  is  interfered  with  in  the  stamens, 
either  by  the  leaving  out  of  two  sta- 
mens (which  would  complete  two  sets), 
or  in  some  other  way.  Next  to  five, 
the  most  common  number  in  flowers 
is  three.  On  this  number  the  flowers 
of  Lily,  Crocus,  Iris,  Spiderwort,  and 
Trillium  (Fig.  189)  are  constructed. 

In  the  Lily  and  Crocus  the  leaves  of 
the  flower  at  first  view  appear  to  be 
six  in  one  set ; but  the  bud  or  just- 
opening  blossom  plainly  shows  these  to  consist  of  an  outer  and  an 
inner  circle,  each  of  three  parts,  namely,  of  calyx  and  corolla,  both  of 
the  same  bright  color  and  delicate  texture.  In  the  Spiderwort  and 
Trillium  (Fig.  189)  the  three  outer 
leaves,  or  sepals,  are  green,  and  dif- 
ferent in  texture  from  the  three  inner, 
or  the  petals ; the  stamens  are  six 
(namely,  two  sets  of  three  each),  and 
the  pistils  three,  though  partly  grown 
together  into  one  mass. 

247.  Alternation  of  Parts.  The  symmetry  of  the  flower  is  likewise 
shown  in  the  arrangement  or  relative  position  of  successive  parts. 
The  rule  is,  that  the  parts  of  successive  circles  alternate  with  one 
another.  That  is,  the  petals  stand  over  the  intervals  between  the 
sepals  ; the  stamens,  when  of  the  same  number, 
stand  over  the  intervals  between  the  petals ; or 
when  twice  as  many,  as  in  the  Trillium,  the 
outer  set  alternates  with  the  petals,  and  the 
inner  set,  alternating  with  the  other,  of  course 
stands  before  the  petals ; and  the  pistils  alter- 
nate with  these.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  189, 
and  in  the  diagram,  or  cross-section  of  the  same  in  the  bud,  Fig.  190. 
And  Fig.  191  is  a similar  diagram  or  ground-plan  (in  the  form  of  a 


FIG.  189.  Flower  of  Trillium  erectum,  or  Birthroot,  spread  out  a little,  and  viewed  from 
above. 

FIG.  190.  Diagram  or  ground-plan  of  the  same,  as  it  would  appear  in  a cross-section  of 
the  bud  ; — the  parts  all  in  the  same  relative  position. 

FIG.  191.  Diagram,  or  ground-plan,  of  the  Flax-flower,  Fig.  174 


94 


PLAN  OF  THE  FLOWER. 


[LESSON  13. 


section  made  across  the  bud)  of  the  Flax  blossom,  the  example  of  a 
pattern  symmetrical  flower  taken  at  the  beginning  of  this  Lesson, 
with  its  parts  all  in  fives. 

248.  Knowing  in  this  way  just  the  position  which  each  organ 
should  occupy  in  the  flower,  it  is  readily  understood  that  flowers 
often  become  unsymmetrical  through  the  loss  of  some  parts,  which 

belong  to  the  plan,  but  are  obliterated 
or  left  out  in  the  execution.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  Larkspur  (Fig.  183, 
184),  as  there  are  five  sepals,  there 
should  be  five  petals  likewise.  We 
find  only  four ; but  the  vacant  place 
where  the  fifth  belongs  is  plainly  rec- 
i93  ognized  at  the  lower  side  of  the  flower. 
Also  the  similar  plan  of  the  Monkshood  (Fig.  186)  equally  calls  for 
five  petals  ; bht  three  of  them  are  entirely  obliterated,  and  the  two 
that  remain  are  reduced  to  slender  bodies,  which  look  as  unlike  or- 
dinary petals  as  can  well  be  imagined.  Yet  their  position,  answer- 
ing to  the  intervals  between  the  upper  sepals  and  the  side  ones, 
reveals  their  true  nature.  All  this  may  perhaps  be  more  plainly 
shown  by  corresponding  diagrams  of  the  calyx  and  corolla  of  the 
Larkspur  and  Monkshood  (Fig.  192,  193),  in  which  the  places  of 
the  missing  petals  are  indicated  by  faint  dotted  lines.  The  oblitera- 
tion of  stamens  is  a still  more  common  case.  For  example,  the 
Snapdragon,  Foxglove,  Gerardia,  and  almost  all  flowers  of  the 
large  Figwort  family  they  belong  to,  have  the  parts  of  the  calyx 
and  corolla  five  each,  but  only  four  stamens  (Fig.  194) ; the  place 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  flower  where  the  fifth  stamen  belongs  is 
vacant.  That  there  is  in  such  cases  a real  obliteration  of  the  miss- 
ing part  is  shown  by  the 

249.  Abortive  Organs,  or  vestiges  which  are  sometimes  met  with ; 
— bodies  which  stand  in  the  place  of  an  organ,  and  represent  it, 
although  wholly  incapable  of  fulfilling  its  office.  Thus,  in  the  Fig- 
wort  family,  the  fifth  stamen,  which  is  altogether  missing  in  Gerardia 
(Fig.  194)  and  most  others,  appears  in  the  Figwort  as  a little  scale, 
and  in  Pentstemon  (Fig.  195)  and  Turtlehead  as  a sort  of  filament 
without  any  anther  ; — a thing  of  no  use  whatever  to  the  plant,  but 

FIG.  192.  Diagram  of  the  calyx  and  corolla  of  a Larkspur.  193.  Similar  diagram  of 
Monkshood.  The  dotted  lines  show  where  the  petals  are  wanting  j one  in  the  former,  three 
in  the  latter. 


LESSON  13.1 


ABORTIVE  ORGANS. 


95 


very  interesting  to  the  botanist,  since  it  completes  the  symmetry  of 
the  blossom.  And  to  show  that  this  really  is  the  lost  stamen,  it 
now  and  then  bears  an  anther,  or  the  rudiment  of  one.  So  the 
flower  of  Catalpa  should  likewise  have  five  stamens  ; but  we  seldom 
find  more  than  two  good  ones.  Still  we  is* 

may  generally  discern  the  three  others, 
as  vestiges  or  half-obliterated  stamens 
(Fig.  196).  In  separated  flowers  the 
rudiments  of  pistils  are  often  found  in 
the  sterile  blossom,  and  rudimentary  sta- 
mens in  the  fertile  blossom,  as  in  Moon- 
seed  (Fig.  177). 

250.  Multiplication  of  Parts.  Quite  in 
the  opposite  way,  the  simple  plan  of  the 
flower  is  often  more  or  less  obscured  by 
an  increase  in  the  number  of  parts.  In 
the  White  Water-Lily,  and  in  many 
Cactus-flowers  (Fig.  197),  all  the  parts 
are  very  numerous,  so  that  it  is  hard 
to  say  upon  what  number  the  blos- 
som is  constructed.  But  more  com- 
monly some  of  the  sets  are  few  and 
definite  in  the  number  of  their  parts. 

The  Buttercup,  for  instance,  has  five 
sepals  and  five  petals,  but  many  sta- 
mens and  pistils ; so  it  is  built  upon 
the  plan  of  five.  The  flowers  of  Mag- 
nolia have  indefinitely  numerous  stamens 
and  pistils,  and  rather  numerous  floral 
envelopes ; but  these  latter  are  plainly  distinguishable  into  sets  o/ 
three ; namely,  there  are  three  sepals,  and  six  petals  in  two  circles, 
or  nine  in  three  circles,  — showing  that  these  blossoms  are  con- 
structed on  the  number  three. 

FIG.  194.  Corolla  of  a purple  Gerardia  laid  open,  showing  the  four  stamens ; tho  cross 
shows  where  the  fifth  stamen  would  be,  if  present. 

FIG.  195.  Corolla,  laid  open,  and  stamens  of  Pentstemon  grandiflorus  of  Iowa,  &c.,  with 
a sterile  filament  in  the  place  of  the  fifth  stamen,  and  representing  it. 

FIG.  196.  Corolla  of  Catalpa  laid  open,  displaying  two  good  stamens  and  three  abortive 
vestiges  of  stamens. 


96 


MORPHOLOGY  OP  THE  FLOWER.  . TlESSON  14. 


LESSON  XIV. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLOWER. 

251.  In  all  the  plant  till  we  came  to  the  blossom  we  found  nothing 
but  root,  stem,  and  leaves  (23,  118).  However  various  or  strange 
their  shapes,  and  whatever  their  use,  everything  belongs  to  one  of 
these  three  organs,  and  everything  above  ground  (excepting  the  rare 
case  of  aerial  roots)  is  either  stem  or  leaf.  We  discern  the  stem 
equally  in  the  stalk  of  an  herb,  the  trunk  and  branches  of  a tree,  the 
trailing  or  twining  Vine,  the  straw  of  Wheat  or  other  Grasses,  the 
columnar  trunk  of  Palms  (Fig.  47),  in  the  flattened  joints  of  the 
Prickly-Pear  Cactus,  and  the  rounded  body  of  the  Melon  Cactus 
(Fig.  76).  Also  in  the  slender  runners  of  the  Strawberry,  the 
tendrils  of  the  Grape-vine  and  Virginia  Creeper,  the  creeping 
subterranean  shoots  of  the  Mint  and  Couchgrass,  the  tubers  of  the 
Potato  and  Artichoke,  the  solid  bulb  of  the  Crocus,  and  the  solid 
part  or  base  of  scaly  bulbs  ; as  is  fully  shown  in  Lesson  6.  And  in 
Lesson  7 and  elsewhere  we  have  learned  to  recognize  the  leaf  alike 
in  the  thick  seed-leaves  of  the  Almond,  Bean,  Horsechestnut,  and  the 
like  (Fig.  9-24),  in  the  scales  of  buds  (Fig.  77),  and  the  thickened 


FIG.  197.  A Cactus-flower,  viz.  of  Mamillaria  caespitosa  of  the  Upper  Missouri. 


LESSON  14.]  ARRANGEMENT  OF  LEAVES  IN  THE  BUD.  97 

scales  of  bulbs  (Fig.  73-75),  in  the  spines  of  the  Barberry  and  the 
tendrils  of  the  Pea,  in  the  fleshy  rosettes  of  the  Houseleek,  the 
strange  fly-trap  of  Dionsea  (Fig.  81),  and  the  curious  pitcher  of  Sar- 
racenia  (Fig.  79). 

252.  Now  the  student  who  understands  these  varied  forms  or 
metamorphoses  of  the  stem  and  leaf,  and  knows  how  to  detect  the 
real  nature  of  any  part  of  the  plant  under  any  of  its  disguises, 
may  readily  trace  the  leaf  into  the  blossom  also,  and  perceive  that, 
as  to  their  morphology, 

253.  Flowers  are  altered  Branches,  and  their  parts,  .therefore,  altered 
leaves.  That  is,  certain  buds,  which  might  have  grown  and  length- 
ened into  a leafy  branch,  do,  under  other  circumstances  and  to  ac- 
complish other  purposes,  develop  into  blossoms.  In  these  the  axis 
remains  short,  nearly  as  it  is  in  the  bud ; the  leaves  therefore  remain 
close  together  in  sets  or  circles ; the  outer  ones,  those  of  the  calyx, 
generally  partake  more  or  less  of  the  character  of  foliage  ; the  next 
set  are  more  delicate,  and  form  the  corolla,  while  the  rest,  the  sta- 
mens and  pistils,  appear  under  forms  very  different  from  those  of 
ordinary  leaves,  and  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  seed.  This 
is  the  way  the  scientific  botanist  views  a flower ; and  this  view  gives 
to  Botany  an  interest  which  one  who  merely  notices  the  shape  and 
counts  the  parts  of  blossoms,  without  understanding  their  plan,  has 
no  conception  of. 

254.  That  flowers  answer  to  branches  may  be  shown  first  from 
their  position.  As  explained  in  the  Lesson  on  Inflorescence,  flowers 
arise  from  the  same  places  as  branches,  and  from  no  other ; flower- 
buds,  like  leaf-buds,  appear  either  on  the  summit  of  a stem,  that  is, 
as  a terminal  bud,  or  in  the  axil  of  a leaf,  as  an  axillary  bud  (196). 
And  at  an  early  stage  it  is  often  impossible  to  foretell  whether  the 
bud  is  to  give  rise  to  a blossom  or  to  a branch. 

‘ 255.  That  the  sepals  and  petals  are  of  the  nature  of  leaves  is 

evident  from  their  appearance  ; persons  who  are  not  botanists  com- 
monly call  them  the  leaves  of  the  flower.  The  calyx  is  most  gen- 
erally green  in  color,  and  foliaceous  (leaf-like)  in  texture.  And 
though  the  corolla  is  rarely  green,  yet  neither  are  proper  leaves 
always  green.  In  our  wild  Painted-Cup,  and  in  some  scarlet  Sages, 
common  in  gardens,  the  leaves  just  under  the  flowers  are  of  the 
brightest  red  or  scarlet,  often  much  brighter-colored  than  the  corolla 
itself.  And  sometimes  (as  in  many  Cactuses,  and  in  Carolina  All- 
spice) there  is  such  a regular  gradation  from  the  last  leaves  of  the 
9 


98 


MORPHOLOGY  OP  THE  FLOWER.  [LESSON  14. 


plant  (bracts  or  bractlets)  into  the  leaves  of  the  calyx,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  where  the  one  ends  and  the  other  begins.  And  if 
sepals  are  leaves,  so  also  are  petals ; for  there  is  no  clearly  fixed 
limit  between  them.  Not  only  in  the  Carolina  Allspice  and  Cactus 
(Fig.  197),  but  in  the  Water-Lily  (Fig.  198)  and  a variety  of 
flowers  with  more  than  one  row  of  petals,  there  is  such  a complete 
transition  between  calyx  and  corolla  that  no  one  can  surely  tell  how 
many  of  the  leaves  belong  to  the  one  and  how  many  to  the  other. 

256.  It  is  very  true  that  the  calyx  or  the  corolla  often  takes  the 
form  of  a cup  or  tube,  instead  of  being  in  separate  pieces,  as  in  Fig. 
194-196.  It  is  then  composed  of  two  or  more  leaves  grown 
together.  This  is  no  objection  to  the  petals  being  leaves ; for  the 
same  thing  takes  place  with  the  ordinary  leaves  of  many  plants,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  upper  ones  of  Honeysuckles  (Fig.  132). 

257.  That  stamens  are  of  the  same  general  nature  as  petals,  and 
therefore  a modification  of  leaves,  is  shown  by  the  gradual  transitions 
that  occur  between  the  one  and  the  other  in  many  blossoms ; es- 
pecially in  cultivated  flowers,  such  as  Roses  and  Camellias,  when 
they  begin  to  double , that  is,  to  change  their  stamens  into  petals. 
Some  wild  and  natural  flowers  show  the  same  interesting  transitions. 
The  Carolina  Allspice  and  the  White  Water-Lily  exhibit  complete 
gradations  not  only  between  sepals  and  petals,  but  between  petals 
and  stamens.  The  sepals  of  the  Water-Lily  are  green  outside,  but 
white  and  petal-like  on  the  inside ; the  petals,  in  many  rows,  grad- 
ually grow  narrower  towards  the  centre  of  the  flower ; some  of  these 
are  tipped  with  a trace  of  a yellow  anther,  but  still  are  petals ; the 
next  are  more  contracted  and  stamen-like,  but  with  a flat  petal-like 
filament ; and  a further  narrowing  of  this  completes  the  genuine  sta- 
men. A series  of  these  stages  is  shown  in  Fig.  198. 

258.  Pistils  and  stamens  now  and  then  change  into  each  other  in 
some  Willows ; pistils  often  turn  into  petals  in  cultivated  flowers  ;* 
and  in  the  Double  Cherry  they  occasionally  change  directly  into 
small  green  leaves.  Sometimes  a whole  blossom  changes  into  a 
cluster  of  green  leaves,  as  in  the  “ green  roses  ” which  are  occa- 
sionally noticed  in  gardens,  and  sometimes  it  degenerates  into  a 
leafy  branch.  So  the  botanist  regards  pistils  also  as  answering  to 
leaves.  And  his  idea  of  a pistil  is,  that  it  consists  of  a leaf  with  its 
margins  curved  inwards  till  they  meet  and  unite  to  form  a closed 
cavity,  the  ovary,  while  the  tip  is  prolonged  to  form  the  style  and 
bear  the  stigma ; as  will  be  illustrated  in  the  Lesson  upon  the  Pistil. 


LESSON  15.] 


THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA. 


99 


259.  Moreover,  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  flower  answers 
to  that  of  leaves,  as  illustrated  in  Lesson  10,  — either  to  a succes- 
sion of  whorls  alternating  with  each  other  in  the  manner  of  whorled 
leaves,  or  in  some  regular  form  of  spiral  arrangement. 


198 


LESSON  XV. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA. 

260.  Haying  studied  the  flower  as  a whole,  we  proceed  to  con- 
sider more  particularly  its  several  parts,  especially  as  to  the  principal 
differences  they  present  in  different  plants.  We  naturally  begin 
with  the  leaves  of  the  blossom,  namely,  the  calyx  and  corolla.  And 
first  as  to 

261.  The  Growing  together  Of  Parts.  It  is  this  more  than  anything 
else  which  prevents  one  from  taking  the  idea,  at  first  sight,  that  the 
flower  is  a sort  of  very  short  branch  clothed  with  altered  leaves. 
For  most  blossoms  we  meet  with  have  some  of  their  organs  grown 
together  more  or  less.  We  have  noticed  it  as  to  the  corolla  of  Ge- 
rardia,  Catalpa,  &c.  (Fig.  194-196),  in  Lesson  13.  This  growing 

FIG.  198.  Succession  of  sepals,  petals,  gradations  between  petals  and  stamens,  and  true 
stamens,  of  the  Nymphtea,  or  White  Water-Lily. 


100  THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA.  [LESSON  15. 

together  takes  place  in  two  ways : either  parts  of  the  same  kind, 
or  parts  of  different  kinds,  may  be  united.  The  first  we  may  call 
simply  the  union , the  second  the  consoli- 
dation, of  parts. 

262.  Union  or  Cohesion  with  one  another 
of  parts  of  the  same  sort.  We  very  com- 
monly find  that  the  calyx  or  the  corolla 
is  a cup  or  tube,  instead  of  a set  of  leaves. 
Take,  for  example,  the  flower  of  the  Stra- 
monium or  Thorn-Apple,  where  both  the 
calyx  and  the  corolla  are  so  (Fig.  199) ; 
likewise  the  common  Morning-Glory,  and 
the  figures  201  to  203,  where  the  leaves 
of  the  corolla  are  united  into  one  piece, 
but  those  of  the  calyx  are  separate.  Now 
there  are  numerous  cases  of  real  leaves 
growing  together  much  in  the  same 
way,  — those  of  the  common  Thorough- 
wort,  and  the  upper  pairs  in  Woodbines 
or  Honeysuckles,  for  example  (Fig.  132)  ; 
so  that  we  might  expect  it  to  occur  in 
the  leaves  of  the  blossom  also.  And  that  this  is  the  right  view  to 
take  of  it  plainly  appears  from  the  transitions  everywhere  met  with 
in  different  plants,  between  a calyx  or  a corolla  of  separate  pieces 
and  one  forming  a perfect  tube  or  cup.  Figures  200  to  203  show 
one  complete  set  of  such  gradations  in  the  corolla,  and  Fig.  204  to 
206  another,  in  short  and  open  corollas.  How  many  leaves  or  petals 
each  corolla  is  formed  of  may  be  seen  by  the  number  of  points  or 
tips,  or  of  the  notches  (called  sinuses ) which  answer  to  the  inter- 
vals between  them. 

263.  When  the  parts  are  united  in  this  way,  whether  much  or 
little,  the  corolla  is  said  to  be  monopetalous , and  the  calyx  mono - 
sepalous.  These  terms  mean  “of  one  petal,”  or  “of  one  sepal”; 
that  is,  of  one  piece.  Wherefore,  taking  the  corolla  or  the  calyx 
as  a whole,  we  say  that  it  is  parted  when  the  parts  are  separate 
almost  to  the  base,  as  in  Fig.  204 ; cleft  or  lobed  when  the  notches 
do  not  extend  below  the  middle  or  thereabouts,  as  in  Fig.  205  ; 

FIG.  199.  Flower  of  the  common  Stramonium  ; both  the  calyx  and  the  corolla  with  their 
parts  united  into  a tube. 


LESSON  15.]  UNION  OF  PARTS.  101 

toothed  or  dentate , when  only  the  tips  are  separate  as  short  points ; 
entire,  when  the  border  is  even,  without  points  or  notches,  as  in  the 


common  Morning-Glory,  and  very  nearly  so  in  Fig.  203 ; and  so 
on ; — the  terms  being  just  the  same  as  those  applied  to  leaves  and 
all  other  flat  bodies,  and  illustrated  in  Lessons  8 and  9. 

264.  There  is  a set  of  terms  applied  particularly  to  calyxes, 
corollas,  or  other  such  bodies  of  one  piece,  to  express  their  general 
shape,  which  we  see  is  very  various.  The  following  are  some  of 
the  principal : — 

Wheel-shaped,  or  rotate  ; when  spreading  out  at  once,  without  a 
tube  or  with  a very  short  one,  something  in  the  shape  of  a wheel 
or  of  its  diverging  spokes,  as  in  the  corolla  of  the  Potato  and  Bitter- 
sweet (Fig.  204,  205). 

Salver-shaped,  or  salver-form  ; when  a flat-spreading  border  is 
raised  on  a narrow  tube,  from  which  it  diverges  at  right  angles, 


like  the  salver  represented  in  old  pictures,  with  a slender  handle 
beneath.  The  corolla  of  the  Phlox  (Fig.  208)  and  of  the  Cypress- 
Vine  (Fig.  202)  are  of  this  sort. 

FIG.  200.  Corolla  of  Soapwort  (the  same  in  Pinks,  &c.),  of  5 separate,  long-clawed  petals. 

FIG.  201.  Flower  of  Gilia  or  Ipomopsis  coronopifolia ; the  parts  answering  to  the  claws 
of  the  petals  of  the  last  figure  here  all  united  into  a tube. 

FIG.  202.  Flower  of  the  Cypress-Vine  ; the  petals  a little  farther  united  into  a five-lobed 
spreading  border. 

FIG.  203.  Flower  of  the  small  Scarlet  Morning-Glory,  the  five  petals  it  is  composed  of 
perfectly  united  into  a trumpet-shaped  tube,  with  the  spreading  border  nearly  even  (or  entire). 

FIG.  204.  Wheel-shaped  and  five-parted  corolla  of  Bittersweet  (Solanum  Dulcamara). 

FIG.  205.  Wheel-shaped  and  five-cleft  corolla  of  the  common  Potato. 

FIG.  206.  Almost  entire  and  very  open  bell-shaped  corolla  of  a Ground  Cherry  (Physalis). 

9 * 


102 


THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA. 


[LESSON  15. 


Sell-shaped , or  campanulate ; where  a short  and  broad  tube 
widens  upward,  in  the  shape  of  a bell,  as  in  Fig.  207. 

Funnel-shaped , or  funnel-form  ; gradually  spreading  at  the  sum- 
mit of  a tube  which  is  narrow  below,  in  the  shape  of  a funnel  or 
tunnel,  as  in  the  corolla  of  the  common  Morning-Glory,  and  of  the 
Stramonium  (Fig.  199). 

Tubular  ; when  prolonged  into  a tube,  without  much  spreading  at 
the  border,  as  in  the  corolla  of  the  Trumpet  Honeysuckle,  the  calyx 
of  Stramonium  (Fig.  199),  &c. 


265.  In  most  of  these  cases  we  may  distinguish  two  parts ; namely, 
the  tube , or  the  portion  all  in  one  piece  and  with  its  sides  upright  or 
nearly  so  ; and  the  border  or  limb , the  spreading  portion  or  summit. 
The  limb  may  be  entire,  as  in  Fig.  203,  but  it  is  more  commonly 
lobed,  that  is,  partly  divided,  as  in  Fig.  202,  or  parted  down  nearly 
to  the  top  of  the  tube,  as  in  Fig.  208,  &c. 

266.  So,  likewise,  a separate  petal  is  sometimes  distinguishable 
into  two  parts ; namely,  into  a narrowed  base  or  stalk-like  part  (as 
in  Fig.  200,  where  this  part  is  peculiarly  long),  called  the  claw,  and 
a spreading  and  enlarged  summit,  or  body  of  the  petal,  called  the 
lamina  or  blade. 

267.  When  parts  of  the  same  set  are  not  united  (as  in  the  Flax, 
Cherry,  &c.,  Fig.  212  - 215),  we  call  them  distinct.  Thus  the  sepals 
or  the  petals  are  distinct  when  not  at  all  united  with  each  other.  As 
a calyx  with  sepals  united  into  one  body  is  called  monosepalous  (263, 
that  is,  one-sepalled),  or  sometimes  monophyllous , that  is,  one-leaved ; 
so,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  sepals  are  distinct,  it  is  said  to  be 

FIG.  207.  Flower  of  the  Harebell,  with  a campanulate  or  bell-shaped  corolla.  208.  Of  a 
Phlox,  with  salver-shaped  corolla.  209.  Of  Dead-Nettle  (Lamium),  with  labiate  ringent  (or 
gaping)  corolla.  210.  Of  Snapdragon,  with  labiate  personate  corolla.  211.  Of  Toad-Flax, 
with  a similar  corolla  spurred  at  the  base. 


207  208  209  210  211 


LESSON  15.] 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  PARTS. 


103 


polysepalous , that  is,  composed  of  several  or  many  sepals.  And  a 
corolla  with  distinct  petals  is  said  to  be  polypetalous. 

268.  Consolidation,  the  growing  together  of  the  parts  of  two  or  more 
different  sets.  In  the  most  natural  or  pattern  flower  (as  explained 
in  Lessons  13  and  14),  the 
several  parts  rise  from  the 
receptacle  or  axis  in  succes- 
sion, like  leaves  upon  a very 
short  stem  ; the  petals  just 
above  or  within  the  sepals, 
the  stamens  just  above  or 
within  these,  and  then  the 
pistils  next  the  summit  or 
centre.  Now  when  contiguous  parts  of  different  sorts,  one  within 
the  other,  unite  at  their  base  or  origin,  it  obscures  more  or  less  the 
plan  of  the  flower,  by  consolidating  organs  which  in  the  pattern 
flower  are  entirely  separate. 

269.  The  nature  of  this  con- 
solidation will  be  at  once  un- 
derstood on  comparing  the  fol- 
lowing series  of  illustrations. 

Fig.  212  represents  a flower  of 
the  common  Flax,  cut  through 
lengthwise,  so  as  to  show  the 
attachment  (or  what  the  bot- 
anist calls  the  insertion ) of  all 
the  parts.  Here  they  are  all 
inserted  on,  that  is  grow  out 
of,  the  receptacle  or  axis  of 
the  blossom.  In  other  words, 
there  is  no  union  at  all  of  the 
parts  of  contiguous  circles.  So 
the  parts  are  said  to  be  free.  214 

And  the  sepals,  petals,  and  stamens,  all  springing  of  course  from 
beneath  the  pistils,  which  are  on  the  very  summit  of  the  axis,  are 
said  to  be  hypogynous  (a  term  composed  of  two  Greek  words,  mean- 
ing “under  the  pistil”). 

FIG.  212.  A Flax-flower,  cut  through  lengthwise. 

FIG.  213.  Flower  of  a Cherry,  divided  in  the  same  way. 

FIG.  214.  Flower  of  the  common  Purslane,  divided  lengthwise. 


104  THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA.  [LESSON  15. 

270.  Fig.  213  is  a flower  of  a Cherry,  cut  through  lengthwise  in 
the  same  way.  Here  the  petals  and  the  stamens  grow  out  of,  that 
is,  are  inserted  on,  the  calyx;  in  other  words  they  cohere  or  are 
consolidated  with  the  base  of  the  calyx  up  to  a certain  height.  In 
such  cases  they  are  said  to  be  perigynous  (from  two  Greek  words, 
meaning  around  the  pistil).  The  consolidation  in  the  Cherry  is  con- 
fined to  the  calyx,  corolla,  and  stamens : the  calyx  is  still  free  from 
the  pistil.  One  step  more  we  have  in 

271.  Fig.  214,  which  is  a similar  section  of  a flower  of  a Purslane. 

Here  the  lower  part  of  the 
calyx  (carrying  with  it  of 
course  the  petals  and  stamens) 
is  coherent  with  the  surface  of 
the  whole  lower  half  of  the 
ovary.  Therefore  the  calyx, 
seeming  to  rise  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  ovary,  is  said  to  be 

215  half  superior , instead  of  being 

inferior , as  it  is  when  entirely  free.  It  is  better  to  say,  however, 
calyx  half-adherent  to  the  ovary.  Every  gradation  occurs  between 

such  a case  and  that  of  a calyx 
altogether  free  or  inferior,  as 
we  see  in  different  Purslanes 
and  Saxifrages.  The  consol- 
idation goes  farther, 

272.  In  the  Apple,  Quince, 
Hawthorn  (Fig.  215),  &c. 
Here  the  tube  of  the  calyx 
is  consolidated  with  the  whole 
surface  of  the  ovary;  and  its 
limb,  or  free  part,  therefore  appears  to  spring  from  its  top,  instead  of 
underneath  it,  as  it  naturally  should.  So  the  calyx  is  said  to  be 
superior , or  (more  properly)  adherent  to,  or  coherent  with,  the  ovary. 
In  most  cases  (and  very  strikingly  in  the  Evening  Primrose),  the 
tube  of  the  calyx  is  continued  on  more  or  less  beyond  the  ovary, 
and  has  the  petals  and  stamens  consolidated  with  it  for  some  dis- 
tance ; these  last,  therefore,  being  borne  on  the  calyx,  are  said  to 
be  perigynous,  as  before  (270). 

FIG.  215.  Flower  of  a Hawthorn,  divided  lengthwise. 

FIG.  216.  Flower  of  the  Cranberry,  divided  lengthwise. 


LESSON  15.] 


IRREGULARITY  OF  PARTS. 


105 


273.  But  if  the  tube  of  the  calyx  ends  immediately  at  the  summit 
of  the  ovary,  and  its  lobes  as  well  as  the  corolla  and  stamens  are  as 
it  were  inserted  directly  on  the  ovary,  they  are  said  to  be  epigynous 
(meaning  on  the  pistil),  as  in  Cornel,  the  Huckleberry,  and  the  Cran- 
berry (Fig.  216). 

274.  Irregularity  of  Parts  in  the  calyx  and  corolla  has  already  been 
noticed  (244)  as  sometimes  obstructing  one’s  view  of  the  real  plan  of 
a flower.  There  is  infinite  variety  in  this  respect ; but  what  has 
already  been  said  will  enable  the  student  to  understand  these  irreg- 
ularities when  they  occur.  We  have  only  room  to  mention  one  or 
two  cases  which  have  given  rise  to 
particular  names.  A very  common 
kind,  among  polypetalous  (267) 
flowers,  is 

275.  The  Papilionaceous  flower 

of  the  Pea,  Bean,  and  nearly  all 
that  family.  In  this  we  have  an 
irregular  corolla  of  a peculiar  shape,  which  Linnasus  likened  to  a 
butterfly  (whence  the  term,  papilio  being  the  Latin  name  for  a but- 
terfly) ; but  the  resemblance  is  * 

not  very  obvious.  The  five  pet- 
als of  a papilionaceous  corolla 
(Fig.  217)  have  received  different 
names  taken  from  widely  different 
objects.  The  upper  and  larger 
petal  (Fig.  218,  s),  which  is  gen- 
erally wrapped  round  all  the  rest 
in  the  bud,  is  called  the  standard 
or  banner.  The  two  side  petals 
( w ) are  called  the  wings.  And 
the  two  anterior  ones  ( 1c ),  the 
blades  of  which  commonly  stick 
together  a little,  and  which  en-  218 

close  the  stamens  and  pistil  in  the  flower,  from  their  forming  a 
body  shaped  somewhat  like  the  keel,  or  rather  the  prow,  of  an 
ancient  boat,  are  together  named  the  heel. 

276.  The  Labiate  or  bilabiate  (that  is,  two-lipped)  flower  is  a very 
common  form  of  the  monopetalous  corolla,  as  in  the  Snapdragon 


FIG.  217.  Front  view  of  the  papilionaceous  corolla  of  the  Locust-tree.  218.  The  parts  of 
the  same,  displayed. 


106 


THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA. 


[lesson  15. 


(Fig.  210),  Toad-Flax  (Fig.  211),  Dead-Nettle  (Fig.  209),  Catnip, 
Horsemint,  &c. ; and  in  the  Sage,  the  Catalpa,  &c.,  the  calyx  also  is 
two-lipped.  This  is  owing  to  unequal  union  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  same  sort,  as  well  as  to  diversity  of  shape.  In  the  corolla  two 
of  the  petals  grow  together  higher  than  the  rest,  sometimes  to  the 
very  top,  and  form  the  upper  lip , and  the  three  remaining  ones  join 
on  the  other  side  of  the  flower  to  form  the  lower  lip,  which  therefore 
is  more  or  less  three-lobed,  while  the  upper  lip  is  at  most  only  two- 
lobed.  And  if  the  calyx  is  also  two-lipped,  as  in  the  Sage,  — since 
the  parts  of  the  calyx  always  alternate  with  those  of  the  corolla 
(247),  — then  the  upper  lip  has  three  lobes  or  teeth,  namely,  is  com- 
posed of  three  sepals  united,  while  the  lower  has  only  two ; which  is 
the  reverse  of  the  arrangement  in  the  corolla.  So  that  all  these 
flowers  are  really  constructed  on  the  plan  of  five,  and  not  on  that  of 
two,  as  one  would  at  first  be  apt  to  suppose.  In  Gerardia,  &c.  (Fig. 
194, 195),  the  number  five  is  evident  in  the  calyx  and  corolla,  but  is 
more  or  less  obscured  in  the  stamens  (249).  In  Catalpa  this  num- 
ber is  masked  in  the  calyx  by  irregular  union,  and  in  the  stamens  by 
abortion.  A different  kind  of  irregular  flower  is  seen  in 

277.  The  Ligulate  or  strap- 
shaped corolla  of  most  com- 
pound flowers . What  was 
called  the  compound  flower 
of  a Dandelion,  Succory  (Fig. 
221),  Thistle,  Sunflower,  As- 
ter, Whiteweed,  &c.,  consists 
of  many  distinct  blossoms, 
closely  crowded  together  into 
a head,  and  surrounded  by  an  involucre  (208).  People  who  are  not 
botanists  commonly  take  the  whole  for  one  flower,  the  involucre  for 
a calyx,  and  corollas  of  the  outer  or  of  all  the  flowers  as  petals. 
And  this  is  a very  natural  mistake  when  the  flowers  around  the 
edge  have  flat  and  open  or  strap-shaped  corollas,  while  the  rest 
are  regular  and  tubular,  but  small,  as  in  the  Whiteweed,  Sunflower, 
&c.  Fig.  219  represents  such  a case  in  a Coreopsis,  with  the 
head,  or  so-called  compound  flower,  cut  through ; and  in  Fig.  220 
we  see  one  of  the  perfect  flowers  of  the  centre  or  disk,  with  a reg- 
ular tubular  corolla  (a),  and  with  the  slender  bract  (b)  from  whose 

FIG.  219.  Head  of  flowers  (the  so-called  “ compound  flower  ”)  of  Coreopsis,  divided 
lengthwise. 


LESSON  15.]  SO-CALLED  COMPOUND  FLOWERS. 


107 


axil  it  grew ; and  also  one  belonging  to  the  margin,  or  ray , with 
a strap-shaped  corolla  ( c ),  borne  in  the  axil  of  a leaf  or  bract  of 


a b 


the  involucre  (d).  Here  the  ray-flower  consists  merely  of  a strap- 
shaped corolla,  raised  on  the  small  rudiment  of  an  ovary ; it  is 
therefore  a neutral  flower,  like  those  of  the  ray  or  margin  of  the 
cluster  in  Hydrangea  (229,  Fig.  167),  only  of  a different  shape. 
More  commonly  the  flowers  with  a strap-shaped  corolla  are  pis- 
tillate, that  is,  have  a pistil  only,  and  produce  seed  like  the  others, 
as  in  Whiteweed.  But  in  the  Dandelion,  Succory  (Fig.  221,  222), 


and  all  of  that  tribe,  these  flowers  are  perfect,  that  is,  bear  both 
stamens  and  pistils.  And  moreover  all  the  flowers  of  the  head  are 
strap-shaped  and  alike. 

278.  Puzzling  as  these  strap-shaped  corollas  appear  at  first  view, 
an  attentive  inspection  will  generally  reveal  the  plan  upon  which 
they  are  constructed.  We  can  make  out  pretty  plainly,  that  each 
one  consists  of  five  petals  (the  tips  of  which  commonly  appear  as  five 
teeth  at  the  extremity),  united  by  their  contiguous  edges,  except  on 

FIG.  220.  A slice  of  Fig.  219,  more  enlarged,  with  one  tubular  perfect  flower  (a)  left 
standing  on  the  receptacle,  with  its  bractlet  or  chaff*  (6),  one  ligulate,  neutral  ray-flower  (c), 
and  part  of  another : d,  section  of  bracts  or  leaves  of  the  involucre. 

FIG.  222.  Head  of  flowers  of  Succory,  cut  through  lengthwise  and  enlarged. 


108 


THE  CALYX  AND  COROLLA. 


[LESSON  16. 


one  side,  and  spread  out  flat.  To  prove  that  this  is  the  case,  we  have 
only  to  compare  such  a corolla  (that  of  Coreopsis,  Fig.  220,  c , or 
one  from  the  Succory,  for  instance)  with  that  of  the  Cardinal-flower, 
or  of  any  other  Lobelia,  which  is  equally  split  down  along  one  side ; 
and  this  again  with  the  less  irregular  corolla  of  the  Woodbine,  par- 
tially split  down  on  one  side. 


LESSON  XVI. 

AESTIVATION,  OR  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OP  THE  CALYX  AND  CO- 
ROLLA IN  THE  BUD. 

279.  ^Estivation  or  Prcefioration  relates  to  the  way  in  which 
the  leaves  of  the  flower,  or  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  or  corolla,  are 
placed  with  respect  to  each  other  in  the  bud.  This  is  of  some 
importance  in  distinguishing  different  families  or  tribes  of  plants, 
being  generally  very  uniform  in  each.  The  aestivation  is  best  seen 

FIG.  221.  Compound  flowers,  i.  e.  heads  of  flowers,  of  Succory. 


LESSON  16.]  THEIR  ARRANGEMENT  IN  THE  BUD. 


109 


by  making  a horizontal  slice  of  the  flower-bud  when  just  ready  to 
open  ; and  it  may  be  expressed  in  diagrams,  as  in  Fig.  223,  224. 

280.  The  pieces  of  the  calyx  or  the  corolla  either  overlap  each 
other  in  the  bud,  or  they  do  not.  When  they  do  not,  the  aestivation 
is  commonly 

Valvate,  as  it  is  called  when  the  pieces  meet  each  other  by  their 
abrupt  edges  without  any  infolding  or  overlapping ; as  the  calyx  of 
the  Linden  or  Basswood  (Fig.  223)  and  the  Mallow,  and  the  corolla 
of  the  Grape,  Virginia  Creeper,  &c.  Or  it  may  be 

Induplicate , which  is  valvate  with  the  margins  of  each  piece  pro- 
jecting inwards,  or  involute  (like  the  leaf  in  Fig.  152),  as  in  the 
calyx  of  Virgin’s-Bower  and  the  corolla  of  the  Potato,  or  else 

Reduplicate , like  the  last,  but  the  margins  projecting  outwards 
instead  of  inwards ; these  last  being  mere  vari- 
ations of  the  valvate  form. 

281.  When  the  pieces  overlap  in  the  bud,  it 
is  in  one  of  two  ways  : either  every  piece  has 
one  edge  in  and  one  edge  out ; or  some  pieces 
are  wholly  outside  and  others  wholly  inside. 
In  the  first  case  the  aestivation  is 
Convolute  or  twisted , as  in  the  corolla  of  Geranium  (most  com- 
monly, Fig.  224),  Flax  (Fig.  191),  and  of  the  Mallow  Family. 

Here  one  edge  of  every  petal  covers  the  next 
before  it,  while  its  other  edge  is  covered  by 
the  next  behind  it.  In  the  second  case  it  is 
Imbricated  or  imbricate , or  breaking  joints , 
like  shingles  on  a roof,  as  in  the  calyx  of  Ge- 
ranium (Fig.  224)  and  of  Flax  (Fig.  191), 
and  the  corolla  of  the  Linden  (Fig.  223).  In 
these  cases  the  parts  are  five  in  number;  and  the  regular  way  then 
is  (as  in  the  calyx  of  the  figures  above  cited)  to  have  two  pieces  en- 
tirely external  (1  and  2),  one  (3)  with  one  edge  covered  by  the  first, 
while  the  other  edge  covers  that  of  the  adjacent  one  on  the  other 
side,  and  two  (4  and  5)  wholly  within,  their  margins  at  least  being 
covered  by  the  rest.  That  is,  they  just  represent  a circle  of  five 
leaves  spirally  arranged  on  the  five-ranked  or  f plan  (187,  188, 
and  Fig.  143-145),  only  with  the  stem  shortened  so  as  to  bring 
the  parts  close  together.  The  spiral  arrangement  of  the  parts  of 


FIG.  223.  Section  across  the  flower-bud  of  Linden. 

FIG.  224.  Section  across  the  flower-bud  of  Geranium : the  sepals  numbered  in  their  order. 

10 


110 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  PARTS  IN  THE  BUD.  [LESSON  16. 


the  blossom  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  foliage,  — an  additional  evi- 
dence that  the  flower  is  a sort  of  branch.  The  petals  of  the  Linden, 
with  only  one  outside  and  one  inside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  223,  exhibit 
a gradation  between  the  imbricated  and  the  convolute  modes.  When 
the  parts  are  four  in  number,  generally  two  opposite  ones  overlap  the 
other  two  by  both  edges.  When  three  in  number,  then  one  is  outer- 
most, the  next  has  one  edge  out  and  the  other  covered,  and  the  third 
is  within,  being  covered  by  the  other  two;  as  in  Fig.  190.  This  is 
just  the  three-ranked  (£)  spiral  arrangement  of  leaves  (186,  and 


282.  In  the  Mignonette,  and  some  other  flowers,  the  aestivation  is 
open ; that  is,  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  not  closed  at  all  over  the 
other  parts  of  the  flower,  even  in  the  young  bud. 

283.  When  the  calyx  or  the  corolla  is  tubular,  the  shape  of  the 
tube  in  the  bud  has  sometimes  to  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  way 
the  lobes  are  arranged.  For  example,  it  may  be 

Plaited  or  plicate , that  is,  folded  lengthwise ; and  the  plaits  may 
either  be  turned  outwards,  forming  projecting  ridges,  as  in  the 
corolla  of  Campanula ; or  turned  inwards,  as  in  the  corolla  of  the 
Gentian,  &c.  When  the  plaits  are  wrapped  round  all  in  one  direc- 
tion, so  as  to  cover  one  another  in  a convolute  manner,  the  aestivation 
is  said  to  be 

Supervolute,  as  in  the  corolla  of  Stramonium  (Fig.  225)  and  the 
Morning-Glory ; and  in  the  Morning-Glory  it  is  twisted  besides. 

FIG.  225.  Upper  part  of  the  corolla  of  Stramonium  (Datura  meteloides),  in  the  bud. 
Underneath  is  a cross-section  of  the  same. 


Fig.  171). 


LESSON  17.] 


THE  STAMENS. 


Ill 


LESSON  XVII. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  STAMENS. 


• stig. 


284.  The  Stamens  exhibit  nearly  the  same  kinds  of  variation  in 
different  species  that  the  calyx  and  corolla  do.  They  may  be  dis- 
tinct (that  is,  separate  from  each  other,  267)  or  united.  They  may 
be  free  (269),  or  else  coherent  with  other  parts  : this  concerns 

285.  Their  Insertion,  or  place  of  attachment,  which  is  most  com- 
monly the  same  as  that  of  the  corolla.  So,  stamens  are 

Hypogynous  (269),  when  they  are  borne  on  the  receptacle,  or  axis 
of  the  flower,  under  the  pistils,  as  they  naturally  should  be,  and  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  212. 

Perigynous , when  borne  on  (that  is  coherent  below  with)  the 
calyx ; as  in  the  Cherry,  Fig.  213. 

Epigynous , when  borne  on  the  ovary,  appar- 
ently, as  in  Fig.  216.  To  these  we  may  add 

Gynandrous  (from  two  Greek  words,  answer- 
ing to  “stamens  and  pistil  united”),  when  the 
stamens  are  consolidated  with  the  style,  so  as 
to  be  borne  by  it,  as  in  the  Lady’s  Slipper 
(Fig.  226)  and  all  the  Orchis  Family.  Also 

Epipetalous  (meaning  on  the  petals),  when 
they  are  borne  by  the  corolla ; as  in  Fig.  194, 
and  in  most  monopetalous  blossoms.  As  to 

286.  Their  Union  with  each  other,  the  stamens  may  be  united  by 
their  filaments  or  by  their  anthers.  In  the  former  case  they  are 

Monadelphous  (from  two  Greek  words,  meaning  “ in  one  brother- 
hood ”),  when  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set,  usually  into  a 
ring  or  cup  below,  or  into  a tube,  as  in  the  Mallow  Family,  the 
Passion-flower,  and  the  Lupine  (Fig.  228). 

Diadelphous  (in  two  brotherhoods),  when  so  united  in  two  sets, 
as  in  the  Pea  and  almost  all  papilionaceous  flowers  (275)  : here 
the  stamens  are  nine  in  one  set,  and  one  in  the  other  (Fig.  227). 


FIG.  226.  Style  of  a Lady’s  Slipper  (Cypripediuin),  and  stamens  united  with  it : a,  a,  the 
anthers  of  the  two  good  stamens  ; st.,  an  abortive  stamen,  what  should  be  its  anther  changed 
into  a petal-like  body ; stig.,  the  stigma. 


112 


THE  STAMENS. 


[LESSON  17. 


Triadelphous , in  three  sets  or  parcels,  as  in  the  common  St.  Johns- 
wort ; or 

Polyadelphous , when  in  more  numerous  sets,  as  in  the  Loblolly 
Bay,  where  they  are  in  five  clusters.  On 
the  other  hand,  stamens  are  said  to  be 
Syngenesious , when  united  by  their  an- 
thers (Fig.  229,  230),  as  they  are  in  Lobelia, 
in  the  Violet  (slightly),  and  in  what  are 
Called  compound  flowers,  such  as  the  Thistle, 
Sunflower,  Coreopsis  (Fig.  220),  and  Suc- 
ffl  ass'  cory  (Fig.  222).  In  Lobelia,  and  in  the 

Squash  and  Pumpkin,  the  stamens  are 
united  both  by  their  anthers  and  their  filaments. 

287.  Their  Number  in  the  flower  is  sometimes  expressed  by  terms 
compounded  of  the  Greek  numerals  and  the  word  used  to  signify 
stamen;  as,  monandrous,  for  a flower  having 

only  one  stamen  ; diandrous , one  with  two 
stamens  ; triandrous , with  three  stamens  ; te- 
trandrous , with  four  stamens  ; pentandrous, 
with  five  stamens ; and  so  on,  up  to  polyan- 
drous  (meaning  with  many  stamens),  when 
there  are  twenty  or  a larger  number,  as  in  a 
Cactus  (Fig.  197).  All  such  terms  may  be 
found  in  the  Glossary  at  the  end  of  the  book. 

288.  Two  terms  are  used  to  express  particular  numbers  with  un- 
equal length.  Namely,  the  stamens  are  didynamous  when  only  four 
in  number,  two  longer  than  the  other  two,  as  in  the  Mint,  Catnip, 
Gerardia  (Fig.  194),  Trumpet- Creeper,  &c. ; and  tetradynamous , 
when  they  are  six,  with  four  of  them  regularly  longer  than  the 
other  two,  as  in  Mustard  (Fig.  188),  and  all  that  family. 

289.  Their  Parts.  As  already  shown  (233),  a stamen  consists  of 
two  parts,  the  Filament  and  the  Anther  (Fig.  231). 

290.  The  Filament  is  a kind  of  stalk  to  the  anther : it  is  to  the 
anther  nearly  what  the  petiole  is  to  the  blade  of  a leaf.  Therefore 
it  is  not  an  essential  part.  As  a leaf  may  be  without  a stalk,  so 
the  anther  may  be  sessile , or  without  a filament.  When  present, 


TIG.  227.  Diadelphous  stamens  of  the  Pea,  & c.  228.  Monadelphous  stamens  of  the 
Lupine. 

FIG.  229.  Syngenesious  stamens  of  Coreopsis  (Fig.  220,  a),  &c.  230.  Same,  with  the 

tube  of  anthers  split  down  on  one  side  and  spread  open. 


LESSON  17.] 


THEIR  STRUCTURE  AND  PARTS. 


113 


the  filament  may  be  of  any  shape  ; but  it  is  commonly  thread-like, 
as  in  Fig.  231,  234,  &c. 

291.  The  Anther  is  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen. 

It  is  a sort  of  case,  filled  with  a fine  powder,  called 
Pollen , which  serves  to  fertilize  the  pistil,  so  that  it 
may  perfect  seeds.  The  anther  may  be  considered, 
first,  as  to 

292.  Its  Attachment  to  the  filament.  Of  this  there  are 
three  ways ; namely,  the  anther  is 

Innate  (as  in  Fig.  232),  when  it  is  attached  by  its  base  to  the 
very  apex  of  the  filament,  turning  neither  inwards  nor  outwards ; or 

Adnate  (as  in  Fig.  233),  when  at- 
tached by  one  face,  usually  for  its 
whole  length,  to  the  side  of  the  fila- 
ment ; and 

Versatile  (as  in  Fig.  234),  when  fixed 
by  its  middle  only  to  the  very  point  of 
the  filament,  so  as  to  swing  loosely,  as 
we  see  it  in  the  Lily,  in  Grasses,  &c. 

293.  In  both  the  last-named  cases, 
the  anther  either  looks  inwards  or  out- 
wards. When  it  is  turned  inwards,  or  is  fixed  to  that  side  of  the 
filament  which  looks  towards  the  pistil  or  centre  of  the  flower,  the 
anther  is  incumbent  or  introrse , i&.  in  Magnolia  and  the  Water-Lily. 
When  turned  outwards,  or  fixed  to  the  outer  side  of  the  filament,  it  is 
ex trorse,  as  in  the  Tulip-tree. 

294.  Its  Structure,  &c.  There  are  few  cases  in  which  the  stamen 
bears  any  resemblance  to  a leaf.  Nevertheless,  the  botanist’s  idea  of 
a stamen  is,  that  it  answers  to  a leaf  developed  in  a peculiar  form 
and  for  a special  purpose.  In  the  filament  he  sees  the  stalk  of  the 
leaf ; in  the  anther,  the  blade.  The  blade  of  a leaf  consists  of  two 
similar  sides ; so  the  anther  consists  of  two  lobes  or  cells,  one  answer- 
ing to  the  left,  the  other  to  the  right,  side  of  the  blade.  The  two  lobes 
are  often  connected  by  a prolongation  of  the  filament,  which  answers 
to  the  midrib  of  a leaf : this  is  called  the  connective.  It  is  very  con- 
spicuous in  Fig.  232,  where  the  connective  is  so  broad  that  it  separates 
the  two  cells  of  the  anther  to  some  distance  from  each  other. 


FIG.  231.  A stamen  : a,  filament ; b,  anther  discharging  pollen. 

FIG.  232.  Stamen  of  Isopyrum,  with  innate  anther.  233.  Of  Tulip-tree,  with  adnate  (and 
extrorse)  anther.  234.  Of  Evening  Primrose,  with  versatile  anther. 

10* 


114 


THE  STAMENS. 


[LESSON  17. 


295.  To  discharge  the  pollen,  the  anther  opens  (or  is  dehiscent) 
at  maturity,  commonly  by  a line  along  the  whole 
length  of  each  cell,  and  which  answers  to  the 
margin  of  the  leaf  (as  in  Fig.  231)  ; but  when 
the  anthers  are  extrorse,  this  line  is  often  on  the 
outer  face,  and  when  introrse,  on  the  inner  face 
of  each  cell.  Sometimes  the  anther  opens  only 
by  a chink,  hole,  or  pore  at  the  top,  as  in  the 
Azalea,  Pyrola  or  False  Wintergreen  (Fig.  235), 
&c. ; and  sometimes  a part  of  the  face  separates  as  a sort  of  trap-door 
(or  valve),  hinged  at  the  top,  and  opening  to  allow  the  escape  of  the 
pollen,  as  in  the  Sassafras,  Spice-bush,  and  Barberry  (Fig.  236). 
Most  anthers  are  really  four-celled  when  young ; 
a slender  partition  running  lengthwise  through 
each  cell  and  dividing  it  into  two  compartments, 
one  answering  to  the  upper,  and  the  other  to  the 
lower,  layer  of  the  green  pulp  of  the  leaf.  Oc- 
casionally the  anther  becomes  one-celled.  This 
takes  place  mostly  by  confluence , that  is,  the  two 
cells  running  together  into  one,  as  they  do 
slightly  in  Pentstemon  (Fig.  237) 
and  thoroughly  in  the  Mallow  Family  (Fig.  238).  But 
sometimes  it  occurs  by  the  obliteration  or  disappear- 
ance of  one  half  of  the  anther,  as  in  the  Globe  Ama- 
ranth of  the  gardens  (Fig.  239). 

296.  The  way  in  which  a stamen  is  supposed  to  be 
constructed  out  of  a leaf,  or  rather  on  the  plan  of  a 
leaf,  is  shown  in  Fig.  240,  an  ideal  figure,  the  lower 
part  representing  a stamen  with  the  top  of  its  anther 
cut  away ; the  upper,  the  corresponding  upper  part  of 
a leaf.  — The  use  of  the  anther  is  to  produce 

297.  Pollen.  This  is  the  powder,  or  fine  dust,  commonly  of  a yel- 
low color,  which  fills  the  cells  of  the  anther,  and  is  discharged  during 
blossoming,  after  which  the  stamens  generally  fall  off  or  wither  away. 


FIG.  235.  Stamen  of  Pyrola  ; the  anther  opening  by  holes  at  the  top. 

FIG.  236.  Stamen  of  Barberry  ; the  anther  opening  by  uplifted  valves. 

FIG.  237.  Stamen  of  Pentstemon  pubescens  ; anther-cells  slightly  confluent. 

FIG.  238.  Stamen  of  Mallow  ; the  two  cells  confluent  into  one,  opening  round  the  margin 
FIG.  239.  Anther  of  Globe  Amaranth,  of  only  one  cell ; the  other  cell  wanting. 

FIG.  240  Diagram  of  the  lower  part  of  an  anther,  cut  across  above,  and  the  upper  part  of 
a leaf,  to  show  how  the  one  answers  to  the  other. 


LESSON  17.] 


POLLEN. 


115 


Under  the  microscope  it  is  found  to  consist  of  grains,  usually  round  or 
oval,  and  all  alike  in  the  same  species,  but  very  different  in  different 
plants.  So  that  the  plant  may  sometimes  be  recognized  from  the 
pollen  alone. 

298.  A grain  of  pollen  is  made  up  of  two  coats ; the  outer  coat 
thickish,  but  weak,  and  frequently  adorned  with  lines  or  bands,  or 
studded  with  points ; the  inner  coat  is  extremely  thin  and  delicate, 
but  extensible,  and  its  cavity  is  filled  with  a thickish  fluid,  often 
rendered  turbid  by  an  immense  number  of  minute  grains  that  float 
in  it.  When  wet,  the  grains  absorb  the  water  and  swell  so  much 
that  many  kinds  soon  burst  and  discharge  their  contents. 

299.  Figures  241  — 250  represent  some  common  sorts  of  pollen, 
magnified  one  or  two  hundred  diameters,  viz. : — A pollen-grain  of 
the  Musk  Plant,  spirally  grooved.  One  of  Sicyos,  or  One-seeded 
Cucumber,  beset  with  bristly  points  and  marked  by  smooth  bands. 
One  of  the  Wild  Balsam-Apple  (Echinocystis),  grooved  lengthwise. 
One  of  Hibiscus  or  Rose-Mallow,  studded  with  prickly  points.  One 
of  Succory,  many-sided,  and  dotted  with  fine  points.  A grain  of  the 
curious  compound  pollen  of  Pine.  One  from  the  Lily,  smooth  and 
oval.  One  from  Enchanter’s  Nightshade,  with  three  small  lobes  on 
the  angles.  Pollen  of  Kalmia,  composed  of  four  grains  united,  as  in 
all  the  Heath  family.  A grain  from  an  Evening  Primrose,  with  a 
central  body  and  three  large  lobes.  The  figures  number  from  left 
to  right,  beginning  at  the  top. 


116 


THE  PISTILS. 


[lesson  18. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  PISTILS. 

300.  The  Pistil,  when  only  one,  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
flower ; when  there  are  two  pistils,  they  stand  facing  each  other  in 
the  centre  of  the  flower ; when  several,  they  commonly  form  a ring 
or  circle  ,;  and  when  very  numerous,  they  are  generally  crowded  in 
rows  or  spiral  lines  on  the  surface  of  a more  or  less  enlarged  or 
elongated  receptacle. 

301.  Their  number  in  a blossom  is  sometimes  expressed,  in  Sys- 
tematic Botany,  by  terms  compounded  of  the  Greek  numerals  and 
the  Greek  word  used  to  signify  pistil,  in  the  following  way.  A flower 
with  one  pistil  is  said  to  be  monogynous  ; with  two,  digynous  ; with 
three,  trigynous  ; with  four,  tetragynous  ; with  five,  pentagynous , and 
so  on  ; with  many  pistils,  polygynous , — terms  which  are  explained 
in  the  Glossary,  but  which  there  is  no  need  to  commit  to  memory. 

302.  The  Parts  of  a Pistil,  as  already  explained  (234),  are  the 
Ovary , the  Style,  and  the  Stigma.  The  ovary  is  one  essential  part : 
it  contains  the  rudiments  of  seeds,  called  Ovules.  The  stigma  at 
the  summit  is  also  essential : it  receives  the  pollen,  which  fertilizes 
the  ovules  in  order  that  they  may  become  seeds.  But  the  style,  the 
tapering  or  slender  column  commonly  borne  on  the  summit  of  the 
ovary,  and  bearing  the  stigma  on  its  apex  or  its  side,  is  no  more  neces- 
sary to  a pistil  than  the  filament  is  to  the  stamen.  Accordingly,  there 
is  no  style  in  many  pistils : in  these  the  stigma  is  sessile,  that  is,  rests 
directly  on  the  ovary.  The  stigma  is  very  various  in  shape  and 
appearance,  being  sometimes  a little  knob  (as  in  the  Cherry,  Fig. 
213),  sometimes  a small  point,  or  small  surface  of  bare,  moist  tissue 
(as  in  Fig.  254-256),  and  sometimes  a longitudinal  crest  or  line 
(as  in  Fig.  252,  258,  267,  269),  and  also  exhibiting  many  other 
shapes. 

303.  The  pistil  exhibits  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  forms,  and 
many  complications.  To  understand  these,  it  is  needful  to  begin 
with  the  simple  kinds,  and  to  proceed  gradually  to  the  complex. 
And,  first  of  all,  the  student  should  get  a clear  notion  of 

304.  The  Plan  or  Ideal  Structure  of  the  Pistil,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
the  way  in  which  a simple  pistil  answers  to  a leaf.  Pistils  are  either 


LESSON  18.] 


SIMPLE  PISTILS. 


117 


simple  or  compound.  A simple  pistil  answers  to  a single  leaf.  A 
compound  pistil  answers  to  two  or  more  leaves  combined,  just  as  a 
monopetalous  corolla  (263)  answers  to  two  or  more  petals,  or  leaves 
of  the  flower,  united  into  one  body.  In  theory,  accordingly, 

305.  The  Simple  Pistil,  or  Carpel  (as  it  is  sometimes  called),  consists 
of  the  blade  of  a leaf,  curved  until  the  margins  meet  and  unite,  form- 
ing in  this  way  a closed  case  or  pod,  which  is  the  ovary.  So  that 
the  upper  face  of  the  altered  leaf  answers  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
ovary,  and  the  lower,  to  its  outer  surface.  And  the  ovules  are  borne 
on  what  answers  to  the  united  edges  of  the  leaf.  The  tapering  sum- 
mit, rolled  together  and  prolonged,  forms  the  style,  when  there  is 
any ; and  the  edges  of  the  altered  leaf  turned  outwards,  either  at 
the  tip  or  along  the  inner  side  of  the  style,  form  the  stigma.  To 
make  this  perfectly  clear,  compare  a leaf  folded  together  in  this  way 
(as  in  Fig.  251)  with  a pistil  of  a 
Garden  Pseony,  or  Larkspur,  or  -with 
that  in  Fig.  252 ; or,  later  in  the 
season,  notice  how  these,  as  ripe  pods, 
split  down  along  the  line  formed  by 
the  united  edges,  and  open  out  again 
into  a sort  of  leaf,  as  in  the  Marsh- 
Marigold  (Fig.  253).  In  the  Double- 
flowering  Cherry  the  pistil  occasion 
ally  is  found  changed  back  again  into 
a small  green  leaf,  partly  folded,  much  as  in  Fig.  251. 

306.  Fig.  172  represents  a simple  pistil  on  a larger  scale,  the 
ovary  cut  through  to  show  how  the  ovules  (when  numerous)  are 
attached  to  what  answers  to  the  two  margins  of  the  leaf.  The 
Stonecrop  (Fig.  168)  has  five  such  pistils  in  a circle,  each  with  the 
side  where  the  ovules  are  attached  turned  to  the  centre  of  the  flower. 

307.  The  line  or  seam  down  the  inner  side,  which  answers  to  the 
united  edges  of  the  leaf,  and  bears  the  ovules,  is  called  the  ventral  or 
inner  Suture.  A corresponding  line  down  the  back  of  the  ovary, 
and  which  answers  to  the  middle  of  the  leaf,  is  named  the  dorsal  or 
outer  Suture. 

308.  The  ventral  suture  inside,  where  it  projects  a little  into  the 

FIG.  251.  A leaf  roiled  up  inwards,  to  show  how  the  pistil  is  supposed  to  be  formed. 

FIG.  252.  Pistil  of  Isopyrum  biternatum  cut  across,  with  the  inner  suture  turned  towards 
the  eye. 

FIG.  253.  Pod  or  ripe  pistil  of  the  Caltha,  or  Marsh-Marigold,  after  opening. 


118 


THE  PISTILS. 


[lesson  18. 


cavity  of  the  ovary,  and  bears  the  ovules,  is  called  the  Placenta. 
Obviously  a simple  pistil  can  have  but  one  placenta ; but  this  is  in 
its  nature  double,  one  half  answering  to  each  margin  of  the  leaf. 
And  if  the  ovules  or  seeds  are  at  all  numerous,  they  will  be  found 
to  occupy  two  rows,  one  for  each  margin,  as  we  see  in  Fig.  252, 172, 
in  the  Marsh-Marigold,  in  a Pea-pod,  and  the  like. 

309.  A simple  pistil  obviously  can  have  but  one  cavity  or  cell ; 
except  from  some  condition  out  of  the  natural  order  of  things.  But 
the  converse  does  not  hold  true : all  pistils  of  a single  cell  are  not 
simple.  Many  compound  pistils  are  one-celled. 

310.  A simple  pistil  necessarily  has  but  one  style.  Its  stigma, 
however,  may  be  double,  like  the  placenta,  and  for  the  same  reason 
(305) ; and  it  often  exhibits  two  lines  or  crests,  as  in  Fig.  252,  or  it 
may  even  be  split  into  two  lobes. 

311.  The  Compound  Pistil  consists  of  two,  three,  or  any  greater 


wild  species  of  Flax,  the  styles  are  united  into  one  also,  for  about 
half  their  length.  So  the  Common  St.  John’s-wort  of  the  fields  has 
a compound  ovary,  of  three  united  carpels,  but  the  three  styles  are 
separate  (Fig.  255),  while  some  of  our  wild,  shrubby  species  have  the 
styles  also  combined  into  one  (Fig.  256),  although  in  the  fruit  they 
often  split  into  three  again.  Even  the  ovaries  may  only  partially 
combine  with  each  other,  as  we  see  in  different  species  of  Saxifrage, 
some  having  their  two  pistils  nearly  separate,  while  in  others  they 

FIG.  254.  Pistil  of  a Saxifrage,  of  two  simple  carpels  or  pistil-leaves,  united  at  the  base 
only,  cut  across  both  above  and  below. 

FIG.  255.  Compound  pistil  of  common  St.  John’s-wort,  cut  across : styles  separate. 

FIG.  256.  The  same  of  shrubby  St.  John’s-wort  j the  three  styles  united  into  one. 


254  255  256 


number  of  pistil-leaves, 
or  carpels  (305),  in  a 
circle,  united  into  one 
body,  at  least  by  their 
ovaries.  The  Culti- 
vated Flax,  for  exam- 
ple (Fig.  212),  has  a 
compound  pistil  com- 
posed of  five  simple 
ones  with  their  ovaries 
united,  while  the  five 
styles  are  separate. 
But  in  one  of  our 


LESSON  18.] 


COMPOUND  PISTILS. 


119 


are  joined  at  the  base  only,  or  else  below  the  middle  (as  in  Fig. 
254),  and  in  some  they  are  united  quite  to  the  top. 

312.  Even  when  the  styles  are  all  consolidated  into  one,  the  stig- 
mas are  often  separate,  or  enough  so  to  show  by  the  number  of  their 
lobes  how  many  simple  pistils  are  combined  to  make  the  compound 
one.  In  the  common  Lily,  for  instance,  the  three  lobes  of  the  stigma, 
as  well  as  the  three  grooves  down  the  ovary,  plainly  tell  us  that  the 
pistil  is  made  of  three  combined.  But  in  the  Day-Lily  the  three 
lobes  of  the  stigma  are  barely  discernible  by  the  naked  eye,  and  in 
the  Spiderwort  (Fig.  257)  they  are  as  perfectly  united  into 
one  as  the  ovaries  and  styles  are.  Here  the  number  of 
cells  in  the  ovary  alone  shows  that  the  pistil  is  compound. 

These  are  all  cases  of 

313.  Compound  Pistils  with  two  or  more  Cells,  namely,  with 
as  many  cells  as  there  are  simple  pistils,  or  carpels,  that 
have  united  to  compose  the  organ.  They  are  just  what 
would  be  formed  if  the  simple  pistils  (two,  three,  or  five 
in  a circle,  as  the  case  may  be),  like  those  of  a Paaony  or 
Stonecrop,  all  pressed  together  in  the  centre  of  the  flower, 
were  to  cohere  by  their  contiguous  parts. 

314.  As  each  simple  ovary  has  its  placenta,  or  seed- 
bearing line  (308),  at  the  inner  angle,  so  the  resulting 
compound  ovary  has  as  many  axile  placenta  (that  is,  as 
many  placentas  in  the  axis  or  centre)  as  there  are  pistil-leaves  in 
its  composition,  but  all  more  or  less  consolidated  into  one.  This  is 
shown  in  the  cross-sections,  Fig.  254-256,  &c. 

315.  The  partitions  (or  Dissepiments , as  they  are  technically 
named)  of  a compound  ovary  are  accordingly  part  of  the  walls  or 
the  sides  of  the  carpels  which  compose  it.  Of  course  they  are  double, 
one  layer  belonging  to  each  carpel ; and  in  ripe  pods  they  often  split 
into  the  two  layers. 

316.  We  have  described  only  one,  though  the  commonest,  kind  of 
compound  pistil.  There  are  besides 

317.  One-celled  Compound  Pistils.  These  are  of  two  sorts,  those  with 
axile,  and  those  with  parietal  placentae.  That  is,  first,  where  the 
ovules  or  seeds  are  borne  in  the  axis  or  centre  of  the  ovary,  and, 
secondly,  where  they  are  borne  on  its  walls.  The  first  of  these 
cases,  or  that 


FIG.  257.  Pistil  of  Spiderwort  (Tradescantia) : the  three-celled  ovary  cut  across. 


120 


THE  PISTILS. 


[LESSON  18. 


318.  With  a Free  Central  Placenta,  is  what  we  find  in  Purslane 
(Fig.  214),  and  in  most  Chickweeds  (Fig.  258,  259)  and  Pinks. 
The  difference  between  this  and  the  foregoing  case  is  only  that  the 
delicate  partitions  have  very  early  vanished  ; and  traces  of  them 
may  often  be  detected.  Or  sometimes  this  is  a variation 
of  the  mode 

319.  With  Parietal  Placentae,  namely,  with  the  ovules 
and  seeds  borne  on  the  sides  or  wall  ( parietes ) of  the 
ovary.  The  pistil  of  the  Prickly  Poppy,  Bloodroot, 
Violet,  Frost-weed  (Fig.  261),  Gooseberry,  and  of 
many  Hypericums,  are  of  this  sort.  To  understand  it 
perfectly,  we  have  only  to  imagine  two,  three,  or  any 
number  of  carpel-leaves  (like  that  of  Fig. 

251),  arranged  in  a circle,  to  unite  by  their 
contiguous  edges,  and  so  form  one  ovary 
or  pod  (as  we  have  endeavored  to  show  in  Fig.  260) ; 

— very  much  as  in  the  Stramonium  (Fig.  199)  the  |\;/ 
five  petals  unite  by  their  edges  to  compose  a mono- 
petalous  corolla,  and  the  five  sepals  to  form  a tubular 
calyx.  Here  each  carpel  is  an  open  leaf,  or  partly 
open,  bearing  ovules  along  its  margins ; and  each 
placenta  consists  of  the  contiguous  margins  of  two 
pistil-leaves  grown  together. 

320.  All  degrees  occur  between  this  and  the  sev- 
eral-celled  ovary  with  the  placentae  in  the  axis.  Com- 
pare, for  illustration,  the  common  St.  John’s-worts,  Fig.  255  and  256, 
with  Fig.  262,  a cross-section  of  the  ovary  of  a different  species,  in 
which  the  three  large  placentae  meet  in  the  axis,  but 
scarcely  unite,  and  with  Fig.  263,  a similar  section  of 
the  ripe  pod  of  the  same  plant,  showing  three  parietal 
placentae  borne  on  imperfect  partitions  projecting  a 
little  way  into  the  general  cell.  Fig.  261  is  the  same 
in  plan,  but  with  hardly  any  trace  of  partitions ; that 
is,  the  united  edges  of  the  leaves  only  slightly  project  into  the  cell. 


FIG.  258.  Pistil  of  a Sandwort,  with  the  ovary  divided  lengthwise  and  259,  the  same 
divided  transversely,  to  show  the  free  central  placenta. 

FIG.  260.  Plan  of  a one-celled  ovary  of  three  carpel-leaves,  with  parietal  placentae,  cut 
across  below,  where  it  is  complete ; the  upper  part  showing  the  top  of  the  three  leaves  it  is 
composed  of,  approaching,  but  not  united. 

FIG.  261.  Cross-section  of  the  ovary  of  Frost-weed  (Heliantheinum),  with  three  parietal 
placentae,  bearing  ovules. 


LESSON  .18.] 


OPEN  PISTILS. 


121 


321.  The  ovary,  especially  when  compound,  is  often  covered  by 
and  united  with  the  tube  of  the  calyx,  as  has  already  been  explained 
(272).  We  describe  this  by  saying  either  “ovary  adherent,”  or 
“ calyx  adherent,”  &c.  Or  we  say  “ ovary  inferior”  when  the  tube 
of  the  calyx  is  adherent  throughout  to 
the  surface  of  the  ovary,  so  that  its 
lobes,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  flower, 
appear  to  be  borne  on  its  summit,  as 
in  Fig.  215  and  Fig.  216;  or  “ half- 
inferior ,”  as  in  the  Purslane  (Fig.  214), 
where  the  calyx  is  adherent  part  way  up  ; or  “ superior ,”  where  the 
calyx  and  the  ovary  are  not  combined,  as  in  the  Cherry  (Fig.  213) 
and  the  like,  that  is,  where  these  parts  are  free.  The  term  “ ovary 
superior,”  therefore,  means  just  the  same  as  “calyx  inferior”;  and 
“ ovary  inferior,”  the  same  as  “ calyx  superior.” 

322.  Open  or  Gymnospermous  Pistil.  This  is  what^e  have  in  the 
whole  Pine  family,  the  most  peculiar,  and  yet  the  simplest, 
of  all  pistils.  While  the  ordinary  simple  pistil  in  the  eye 
of  the  botanist  represents  a leaf  rolled  together  into  a 
closed  pod  (305),  those  of  the  Pine,  Larch  (Fig.  264), 

264  Cedar,  and  Arbor-Vitae  (Fig.  265, 

266)  are  plainly  open  leaves,  in  the  form  of  ^ 
scales,  each  bearing  two  or  more  ovules  on  the 
inner  face,  next  the  base.  At  the  time  of 
blossoming,  these  pistil-leaves  of  the  young 
cone  diverge,  and  the  pollen,  so  abundantly 
shed  from  the  staminate  blossoms,  falls  di- 
rectly upon  the  exposed  ovules.  Afterwards 
the  scales  close  over  each  other  until  the 
seeds  are  ripe.  Then  they  separate  again, 
that  the  seeds  may  be  shed.  As  their  ovules  and  seeds  are  not 
enclosed  in  a pod,  all  such  plants  are  said  to  be  Gymnospermous , 
that  is,  naked-seeded. 


FIG.  262.  Cross-section  of  the  ovary  of  Hypericum  graveolens.  263.  Similar  section  of 
the  ripe  pod  of  the  same. 

FIG.  264.  A pistil,  that  is,  a scale  of  the  cone,  of  a Larch,  at  the  time  of  flowering ; 
inside  view,  showing  its  pair  of  naked  ovules. 

FIG.  265.  Branchlet  of  the  American  Arbor-Vitae,  considerably  larger  than  in  nature, 
terminated  by  its  pistillate  flowers,  each  consisting  of  a single  scale  (an  open  pistil),  together 
forming  a small  cone. 

FIG.  266.  One  of  the  scales  or  pistils  of  the  last,  removed  and  more  enlarged,  the  inside 
exposed  to  view,  showing  a pair  of  ovules  on  its  base. 

11 


122 


THE  PISTILS. 


[lesson  18. 


323.  Ovules  (234).  These  are  the  bodies  which  are  to  become 
seeds.  They  are  either  sessile , that  is,  stalkless,  or  else  borne  on  a 
stalk,  called  the  Funiculus.  They  may  be  produced  along  the  whole 
length  of  the  cell,  or  only  at  some  part  of  it,  generally  either  at  the 
top  or  the  bottom.  In  the  former  case  they  are  apt  to  be  numerous ; 
in  the  latter,  they  may  be  few  or  single  ( solitary , Fig.  267  - 269). 
As  to  their  direction,  ovules  are  said  to  be 

Horizontal , when  they  are  neither  turned  upwards  nor  down- 
wards, as  in  Fig.  252,  261 ; 

Ascending , when  rising  obliquely  upwards,  usually  from  the  side 
of  the  cell,  not  from  its  very  base,  as  in  the  Buttercup  (Fig.  267), 


Suspended , when  hanging  perpendicularly  from  the  very  sum- 
mit of  the  cell,  as  in  the  Anemone  (Fig.  269),  Dogwood,  &c.  All 
these  terms  equally  apply  to  seeds. 

324.  An  ovule  consists  of  a pulpy  mass  of  tissue,  the  Nucleus  or 
kernel,  and  usually  of  one  or  two  coats.  In  the  nucleus  the  embryo 
is  formed,  and  the  coats  become  the  skin  or  coverings  of  the  seed. 
There  is  a hole  ( Orifice  or  Foramen)  through  the  coats,  at  the  place 
which  answers  to  the  apex  of  the  ovule.  The  part  by  which  the 
ovule  is  attached  is  its  base  ; the  point  of  attachment,  where  the  ripe 
seed  breaks  away  and  leaves  a scar,  is  named  the  Hilum . The 
place  where  the  coats  blend,  and  cohere  with  each  other  and  with  the 
nucleus,  is  named  the  Chalaza.  We  will  point  out  these  parts  in 
illustrating  the  four  principal  kinds  of  ovule.  These  are  not  difficult 
to  understand,  although  ovules  are  usually  so  small  that  a good  mag- 
nifying-glass is  needed  for  their  examination.  Moreover,  their  names, 
all  taken  from  the  Greek,  are  unfortunately  rather  formidable. 

325.  The  simplest  sort,  although  the  least  common,  is  what  is 
called  the 

Orthotropous , or  straight  ovule.  The  Buckwheat  affords  a good 


and  the  Purslane  (Fig.  214)  ; 


Erect , when  rising  upright  from 


the  base  of  the  cell,  as  in  the  Buck- 


wheat (Fig.  268) ; 


Pendulous , when  hanging  from 
towards  the  top,  as  in  the  Flax 
(Fig.  212);  and 


FIG.  267.  Section  of  the  ovary  of  a Buttercup,  lengthwise,  showing  its  ascending  ovule. 
FIG.  268.  Section  of  the  ovary  of  Buckwheat,  showing  the  erect  ovule. 

FIG.  269.  Section  of  the  ovary  of  Anemone,  showing  its  suspended  ovule. 


LESSON  18.] 


OVULES. 


123 


instance  of  it : it  is  shown  in  its  place  in  the  ovary  in  Fig.  268, 
also  detached  in  Fig.  270,  and  a much  more  magnified  diagram  of  it 
in  Fig.  274.  In  this  kind,  the  orifice  (/)  is  at  the  top,  the  chalaza 
and  the  hilum  (c)  are  blended  at  the  base  or  point  of  attachment, 
which  is  at  the  opposite  end ; and  the  axis  of  the  ovule  is  straight. 


270  271  272  273 


If  such  an  ovule  were  to  grow  on  one  side  more  than  on  the  other, 
and  double  up,  or  have  its  top  pushed  round  as  it  enlarges,  it  would 
become  a 

Campylotropous  or  curved  ovule,  as  in  Cress  and  Chickweed  (Fig. 
271).  Here  the  base  remains  as  in  the  straight  kind,  but  its  apex 
with  the  orifice  is  brought  round  close  to  it.  — Much  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  all  is  the 

Anatropous  or  inverted  ovule.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  267,  and 
273  ; also  a much  enlarged  section  lengthwise,  or  diagram,  in  Fig. 
275.  To  understand  it,  we  have  only  to  suppose  the  first  sort  (Fig. 
270)  to  be  inverted  on  its  stalk,  or  rather  to  have  its  stalk  bent 
round,  applied  to  one  side  of  the  ovule  lengthwise,  and  to  grow  fast 
to  the  coat  down  to  near  the  orifice  (/)  ; the  hilum,  therefore,  where 
the  seed-stalk  is  to  break  away  ( h ),  is  close  to  the  orifice ; but  the 
chalaza  (c)  is  here  at  the  top  of  the  ovule ; between  it  and  the  hilum 
runs  a ridge  or  cord,  called  the  Rhaphe  (r),  which  is  simply  that  part 
of  the  stalk  which,  as  the  ovule  grew  and  turned  over,  adhered  to  its 
surface.  — Lastly,  the 

Amphitropous  or  half -anatropous  ovule  (Fig.  272)  differs  from 
the  last  only  in  having  a shorter  rhaphe,  ending  about  half-way 
between  the  chalaza  and  the  orifice.  So  the  hilum  or  attachment  is 
not  far  from  the  middle  of  one  side,  while  the  chalaza  is  at  one  end 
and  the  orifice  at  the  other. 

326.  The  internal  structure  of  the  ovule  is  sufficiently  displayed 
in  the  subjoined  diagrams,  representing  a longitudinal  slice  of  two 

FIG.  270.  Orthotropous  ovule  of  Buckwheat : c,  hilum  and  chalaza ; /,  orifice. 

FIG.  271.  Campylotropous  ovule  of  a Chickweed  : c,  hilum  and  chalaza  ; f,  orifice. 

FIG.  272.  Amphitropous  ovule  of  Mallow : /,  orifice ; h,  hilum  ; r,  rhaphe  ; c,  chalaza. 

FIG.  273.  Anatropous  ovule  of  a Violet  j the  parts  lettered  as  in  the  last. 


124 


THE  RECEPTACLE. 


[LESSON  19. 


ovules ; Fig.  274,  an  orthotropous,  Fig.  275,  an  anatropous  ovule. 
The  letters  correspond  in  the  two  ; c,  the  chalaza ; f,  the  orifice ; 
r,  rhaphe  (of  which  there  is  of  course  none  in  Fig.  274) ; p , the 
outer  coat,  called  primine  ; s,  inner  coat,  called  secundine  ; n,  nu- 
cleus or  kernel. 


/ e 


LESSON  XIX. 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  RECEPTACLE. 

327.  The  Receptacle  (also  called  the  Torus)  is  the  axis,  or 
stem,  which  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  the  blossom  are  attached 
to  (231).  It  is  commonly  small  and  short  (as  in  Fig.  169) ; but  it 
sometimes  occurs  in  more  conspicuous  and  remarkable  forms. 

328.  Occasionally  it  is  elongated,  as  in  some  plants  of  the  Caper 
family  (Fig.  276),  making  the  flower  really  look  like  a branch,  hav- 
ing its  circles  of  leaves,  stamens,  &c.,  separated  by  long  spaces  or 
internodes. 

329.  The  Wild  Geranium  or  Cranesbill  has  the  receptacle  pro- 
longed above  and  between  the  insertion  of  the  pistils,  in  the  form 
of  a slender  beak.  In  the  blossom,  and  until  the  fruit  is  ripe,  it 
is  concealed  by  the  five  pistils  united  around  it,  and  their  flat  styles 
covering  its  whole  surface  (Fig.  277).  But  at  maturity,  the  five 
small  and  one-seeded  fruits  separate,  and  so  do  their  styles,  from  the 
beak,  and  hang  suspended  from  the  summit.  They  split  off  elasti- 


LESSON  19.] 


THE  RECEPTACLE. 


125 


cally  from  the  receptacle,  curving  upwards  with  a sudden  jerk,  which 
scatters  the  seed,  often  throwing  it  to  a considerable  distance. 

330.  When  a flower 
bears  a great  many  pis- 
tils, its  receptacle  is  gen- 
erally enlarged  so  as  to 
give  them  room ; some- 
times becoming  broad 
and  flat,  as  in  the  Flow- 
ering Raspberry,  some- 
times elongated,  as  in 
the  Blackberry,  the  Mag- 
nolia, &c.  It  is  the  re- 
ceptacle in  the  Straw- 
berry (Fig.  279),  much 

enlarged  and  pulpy  when  ripe,  which  forms  the  eatable  part  of  the 
fruit,  and  bears  the  small  seed-like  pistils  on  its 
surface.  In  the  Rose  (Fig.  280),  instead  of  being 
convex  or  conical,  the  receptacle  is  deeply  con- 
cave, or  urn-shaped.  Indeed,  a Rose-hip  may  be 
likened  to  a strawberry  turned  inside  out,  like 
the  finger  of  a glove  reversed,  and  the  whole 
covered  by  the  adherent  tube  of  the  calyx,  which 
remains  beneath  in  the  strawberry. 

331.  A Disk  is  a part  of  the  re- 
ceptacle, or  a growth  from  it,  en- 
larged under  or  around  the  pistil. 

It  is  hypogynous  (269),  when  free 
from  all  union  either  with  the  pistil 
or  the  calyx,  as  in  the  Rue  and  the 
Orange  (Fig.  281).  It  is  perigy- 
nous  (270),  when  it  adheres  to  the 
base  of  the  calyx,  as  in  the  Bladder-nut  and  Buckthorn  (Fig.  282, 


FIG.  276.  Flower  of  Gynandropsis  , the  receptacle  enlarged  and  flattened  where  it  bears 
the  sepals  and  petals,  then  elongated  into  a slender  stalk,  bearing  the  stamens  (in  appearance, 
but  they  are  monadelphous)  above  its  middle,  and  a compound  ovary  on  its  summit. 

FIG.  277.  Young  fruit  of  the  common  Wild  Cranesbill. 

FIG.  278.  The  same,  ripe,  with  the  five  pistils  splitting  away  from  the  long  beak  or  recep- 
tacle, and  hanging  from  its  top  by  their  styles. 

FIG.  279.  Longitudinal  section  of  a young  strawberry,  enlarged. 

FIG.  280.  Similar  section  of  a young  Rose-hip. 

FIG.  281.  Pistil  of  the  Orange,  with  a large  hypogynous  disk  at  its  base. 

11* 


126 


THE  FRUIT. 


[LESSON  20. 


283).  Often  it  adheres  both  to  the  calyx  and  to  the  ovary,  as  in 
New  Jersey  Tea,  the  Apple,  &c.,  consolidating  the  whole  together. 
In  such  cases  it  is  sometimes  carried  up  and  expanded  on  the  top  of 

the  ovary,  as  in  the  Parsley  and 
the  Ginseng  families,  when  it  is 
said  to  be  epigynous  (273). 

332.  In  Nelumbium,  — a large 
Water-Lily,  abounding  in  the  wa- 
ters of  our  Western  States,  — the 
singular  and  greatly  enlarged  receptacle  is  shaped  like  a top,  and 
bears  the  small  pistils  immersed  in  separate  cavities  of  its  flat  upper 
surface  (Fig.  284). 


LESSON  XX. 

THE  FRUIT. 

333.  The  ripened  ovary,  with  its  contents,  becomes  the  Fruit. 
When  the  tube  of  the  calyx  adheres  to  the  ovary,  it  also  becomes 
a part  of  the  fruit : sometimes  it  even  forms  the  principal  bulk  of  it, 
as  in  the  apple  and  pear. 

334.  Some  fruits,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  are  not  fruits  at 
all  in  the  strict  botanical  sense.  A strawberry,  for  example  (as 
we  have  just  seen,  330,  Fig.  282),  although  one  of  the  choicest  fruits 
in  the  common  acceptation,  is  only  an  enlarged  and  pulpy  receptacle, 
bearing  the  real  fruits  (that  is,  the  ripened  pistils)  scattered  over  its 

FIG.  289.  Flower  of  a Buckthorn,  with  a large  perigynous  disk.  283.  The  same,  divided. 

FIG.  284  Receptacle  of  Nelumbium,  in  fruit. 


LESSON  20.] 


ITS  KINDS. 


127 


surface,  and  too  small  to  be  much  noticed.  And  mulberries,  figs, 
and  pine-apples  are  masses  of  many  fruits  with  a pulpy  flower-stalk, 
&c.  Passing  these  by  for  the  present,  let  us  now  consider  only 

335.  Simple  Fruits.  These  are  such  as  are  formed  by  the  ripening 
of  a single  pistil,  whether  simple  (305)  or  compound  (311). 

336.  A simple  fruit  consists,  then,  of  the  Seed-vessel  (technically 
called  the  Pericarp),  or  the  walls  of  the  ovary  matured,  and  the  seeds, 
contained  in  it.  Its  structure  is  generally  the  same  as  that  of  the 
ovary,  but  not  always ; because  certain  changes  may  take  place  after 
flowering.  The  commonest  change  is  the  obliteration  in  the  growing 
fruit  of  some  parts  which  existed  in  the  pistil  at  the  time  of  flowering. 
The  ovary  of  a Horsechestnut,  for  instance,  has  three  cells  and  two 
ovules  in  each  cell ; but  the  fruit  never  has  more  than  three  seeds, 
and  rarely  more  than  one  or  two,  and  only  as  many  cells.  Yet  the 
vestiges  of  the  seeds  that  have  not  matured,  and  of  the  wanting  cells 
of  the  pod,  may  always  be  detected  in  the  ripe  fruit.  This  oblitera- 
tion is  more  complete  in  the  Oak  and  Chestnut.  The  ovary  of  the 
first  likewise  has  three  cells,  that  of  the  second  six  or  seven  cells, 
each  with  two  ovules  hanging  from  the  summit.  We  might  there- 
fore expect  the  acorn  and  the  chestnut  to  have  as  many  cells,  and 
two  seeds  in  each  cell.  Whereas,  in  fact,  all  the  cells  and  all  the 
ovules  but  one  are  uniformly  obliterated  in  the  forming  fruit,  which 
thus  becomes  one-celled  and  one-seeded,  and  rarely  can  any  vestige 
be  found  of  the  missing  parts. 

337.  On  the  other  hand,  a one-celled  ovary  sometimes  becomes 
several-celled  in  the  fruit  by  the  formation  of  false  partitions,  com- 
monly by  cross-partitions,  as  in  the  jointed  pod  of  the  Sea-Rocket 
and  the  Tick-Trefoil  (Fig.  304). 

338.  Their  Kinds.  In  defining  the  principal  kinds  of  simple  fruits 
which  have  particular  names,  we  may  classify  them,  in  the  first  place, 
into,  — 1.  Fleshy  Fruits ; 2.  Stone  Fruits',  and  3.  Dry  Fruits. 
The  first  and  second  are  of  course  indehiscent ; that  is,  they  do  not 
split  open  when  ripe  to  discharge  the  seeds. 

339.  In  jleshy  fruits  the  whole  pericarp,  or  wall  of  the  ovary, 
thickens  and  becomes  soft  (fleshy,  juicy,  or  pulpy)  as  it  ripens.  Of 
this  the  leading  kind  is 

340.  The  Berry,  such  as  the  gooseberry  and  currant,  the  blueberry 
and  cranberry,  the  tomato,  and  the  grape.  Here  the  whole  flesh  is 
equally  soft  throughout.  The  orange  is  merely  a berry  with  a 
leathery  rind. 


128 


THE  FRUIT. 


[lesson  20. 


341.  The  Pepo,  or  Gourd-fruit , is  the  sort  of  berry  which  belongs 
to  the  Gourd  family,  mostly  with  a hard  rind  and  the  inner  portion 
softer.  The  pumpkin,  squash,  cucumber,  and  melon  are  the  prin- 
cipal examples. 

342.  The  Pome  is  a name  applied  to  the  apple,  pear,  and  quince  ; 
fleshy  fruits  like  a berry,  but  the  principal  thickness  is  calyx,  only 
the  papery  pods  arranged  like  a star  in  the  core  really  belonging  to 
the  pistil  itself  (333). 

343.  Secondly,  as  to  fruits  which  are  partly  fleshy  and  partly  hard, 
one  of  the  most  familiar  kinds  is 

344.  Tile  Dl’lipe,  or  Stone-fruit ; of  which  the  cherry,  plum,  and 
peach  (Fig.  285)  are  familiar  examples.  In 
this  the  outer  part  of  the  thickness  of  the 
pericarp  becomes  fleshy,  or  softens,  like  a 
berry,  while  the  inner  hardens,  like  a nut. 
From  the  way  in  which  the  pistil  is  con- 
structed (305),  it  is  evident  that  the  fleshy 
part  here  answers  to  the  lower,  and  the  stone 
to  the  upper,  side  of  the  leaf;  — a leaf  always 

consisting  of  two  layers  of  green  pulp,  an  upper  and  an  under  layer, 
which  are  considerably  different  (439). 

345.  Whenever  the  walls  of  a fruit  are  separable  into  two  layers, 
the  outer  layer  is  called  the  Exocarp , the  inner,  the  Endocarp  (from 
Greek  words  meaning  “outside  fruit”  and  “ inside  fruit”).  But  in 
a drupe  the  outer  portion,  being  fleshy,  is  likewise  called  Scircocarp 
(which  means  “fleshy  fruit”),  and  the  inner,  the  Putamen  or  stone. 
The  stone  of  a peach,  and  the  like,  it  will  be  perceived,  belongs  to 
the  fruit,  not  to  the  seed.  When  the  walls  are  separable  into  three 
layers,  the  outer  layer  is  named  either  exocarp  or  Epicarp  ; the 
middle  one  is  called  the  Mesocarp  (i.  e.  middle  fruit) ; and  the  inner- 
most, as  before,  the  Endocarp. 

346.  Thirdly,  in  dry  fruits  the  seed-vessel  remains  herbaceous  in 
texture,  or  becomes  thin  and  membranaceous,  or  else  it  hardens 
throughout.  Some  forms  remain  closed,  that  is,  are  indehiscent 
(338)  ; others  are  dehiscent , that  is,  split  open  at  maturity  in  some 
regular  way.  Of  indehiscent  or  closed  dry  fruits  the  principal  kinds 
are  the  following. 

347.  The  Achenium,  or  Alcene,  is  a small,  one-seeded,  dry,  indehis- 


FIG.  285.  Longitudinal  section  cf  a peach,  showing  the  flesh,  the  stone,  and  the  seed. 


LESSON  20.] 


ITS  KINDS. 


129 


frv 


cent  fruit,  such  as  is  popularly  taken  for  a naked  seed : but  it  is 
plainly  a ripened  ovary,  and  shows  the  re- 
mains of  its  style  or  stigma,  or  the  place 
from  which  it  has 
fallen.  Of  this  sort 
are  the  fruits  of  the 
Buttercup  (Fig.  286, 

287),  the  Cinque-foil,  and  the  Strawberry  (Fig. 
279,  288);  that  is,  the  real  fruits,  botanically 
speaking,  of  the  latter,  which  are  taken  for  seeds, 
not  the  large  juicy  receptacle  on  the  surface  of 
which  they  rest  (330).  Here  the  akenes  are 
simple  pistils  (305),  very  numerous  in  the  same 
flower,  and  forming  a head  of  such  fruits.  In 
the  Nettle,  Hemp,  &c.,  there  is  only  one  pistil  to 
each  blossom. 

348.  In  the  raspberry  and  blackberry,  each  grain 
is  a similar  pistil,  like  that  of  the  strawberry  in  the 
flower,  but  ripening  into  a miniature  stone-fruit,  or 
drupe.  So  that  in  the  strawberry  we  eat  the 
receptacle,  or  end  of  the  flower-stalk ; in  the  rasp- 
berry, a cluster  of  stone-fruits,  like  cherries  on  a 
very  small  scale ; and  in  the  blackberry,  both  a juicy 
receptacle  and  a cluster  of  stone-fruits  covering  it 
(Fig.  289,  290). 

349.  The  fruit  of  the  Composite  family  is  also 
an  achenium.  Here  the  surface  of  the  ovary  is 
covered  by  an  adherent  calyx-tube,  as  is  evident 
from  the  position  of  the  corolla,  apparently  standing 
on  its  summit  (321,  and  Fig.  220,  a).  Sometimes  the 
limb  or  divisions  of  the  calyx  are  entirely  wanting, 

as  in  Mayweed  (Fig.  291)  and  Whiteweed.  Sometimes  the  limb 
of  the  calyx  forms  a crown  or  cup  on  the  top  of  the  achenium,  as  in 
Succory  (Fig.  292)  ; in  Coreopsis,  it  often  takes  the  form  of  two 
blunt  teeth  or  scales  ; in  the  Sunflower  (Fig.  293),  it  consists  of  two 


FIG.  286.  Achenium  of  Buttercup.  287.  Same,  cut  through,  to  show  the  seed  within. 
FIG.  288.  Slice  of  a part  of  a ripe  strawberry,  enlarged  ; some  of  the  achenia  shown  cut 
through. 

FIG.  289.  Slice  of  a part  of  a blackberry.  290.  One  of  the  grains  or  drupes  divided,  more 
enlarged  ; showing  the  flesh,  the  stone,  and  the  seed,  as  in  Fig.  285. 


130 


THE  FRUIT. 


[lesson  20. 


thin  scales  which  fall  off  at  the  touch ; in  the  Sneezeweed,  of  about 
five  very  thin  scales,  which  look  more  like  a calyx  (Fig.  294) ; and 
in  the  Thistle,  Aster,  Sow-Thistle  (Fig.  295),  and  hundreds  of  others, 
it  is  cut  up  into  a tuft  of  fine  bristles  or  hairs.  This  is  called  the 
Pappus  ; — a name  which  properly  means  the  down  like  that  of  the 
Thistle  ; but  it  is  applied  to  all  these  forms, 
and  to  every  other  under  wrhich  the  limb  of  the  ^ ^ 
calyx  of  the  “ compound  flowers  ” appears.  In 
Lettuce,  Dandelion  (Fig.  296),  and  the  like, 
the  achenium  as  it  matures  tapers  upwards 
into  a slender  beak,  like  a stalk  to  the  pappus. 


350.  A Utricle  is  the  same  as  an  achenium,  but  with  a thin  and 
bladdery  loose  pericarp ; like  that  of  the  Goosefoot  or  Pigweed 
(Fig.  297).  When  ripe  it  bursts  open  irregularly  to 
discharge  the  seed  ; or  sometimes  it  opens  by  a circular 
line  all  round,  the  upper  part  falling  off  like  a lid  ; as  in 
the  Amaranth  (Fig.  298). 

351.  A Caryopsis,  or  Grain,  differs  from  the  last  only 
in  the  seed  adhering  to  the  thin  pericarp 
throughout,  so  that  fruit  and  seed  are  in- 
corporated into  one  body;  as  in  wheat,  In- 
dian corn,  and  other  kinds  of  grain. 

352.  A Nut  is  a dry  and  indehiscent  fruit, 
commonly  one-celled  and  one-seeded,  with  a hard,  crus- 
taceous,  or  bony  wall,  such  as  the  cocoanut,  hazelnut, 
chestnut,  and  the  acorn  (Fig.  21,  299).  Here  the 
involucre,  in  the  form  of  a cup  at  the  base,  is  called  the  Oupule.  In 
the  Chestnut  it  forms  the  bur  ; in  the  Hazel,  a leafy  husk. 


FIG.  291.  Achenium  of  Mayweed  (no  pappus).  292.  That  of  Succory  (its  pappus  a shal- 
low cup).  293.  Of  Sunflower  (pappus  of  two  deciduous  scales).  294.  Of  Sneezeweed  (Hele- 
nium),  with  its  pappus  of  five  scales.  295.  Of  Sow-Thistle,  with  its  pappus  of  delicate  downy 
hairs.  296.  Of  the  Dandelion,  its  pappus  raised  on  a long  beak. 

IG.  297.  Utricle  of  the  common  Pigweed  (Chenopodium  album). 

FIG.  298.  Utricle  (pyxis)  of  Amaranth,  opening  all  round  (circumcissile). 

FIG.  299.  Nut  (acorn)  of  the  Oak,  with  its  cup  (or  cupule). 


LESSON  20.] 


ITS  KINDS. 


131 


353.  A Samara,  or  Key-fruit,  is  either  a nut  or  an  achenium,  or  any 
other  indehiscent  fruit,  furnished  with  a wing,  like  that  of  the  Maple 
(Fig.  1),  Ash  (Fig.  300),  and  Elm  (Fig.  301). 

354.  The  Capsule,  or  Pod,  is  the  general  name  for  dry  seed-vessels 


303),  is  similar  to  the  follicle,  only  it  opens  by  the  outer  as  well  as 
the  inner  or  ventral  suture  (307),  that  is,  by  what  answmrs  to  the 
midrib  as  well  as  by  what  answers  to  the  united  margins  of  the  leaf. 
It  splits  therefore  into  two  pieces,  which  are  called  valves.  The  le- 
gume belongs  to  plants  of  the  Pulse  family,  which  are  accordingly 
termed  Leguminosce , that  is,  leguminous  plants.  So  the  fruits  of  this 
family  keep  the  name  of  legume,  whatever  their  form,  and  whether 
they  open  or  not.  A legume  divided  across  into  one-seeded  joints, 
which  separate  when  ripe,  as  in  Tick-Trefoil  (Fig.  304),  is  named  a 
Loment. 

357.  The  true  Capsule  is  the  pod  of  a compound  pistil.  Like  the 
ovary  it  resulted  from,  it  may  be  one-celled,  or  it  may  have  as  many 
cells  as  there  are  carpels  in  its  composition.  It  may  discharge  its 
seeds  through  chinks  or  pores,  as  in  the  Poppy,  or  burst  irregularly 
in  some  part,  as  in  Lobelia  and  the  Snapdragon ; but  commonly  it 
splits  open  (or  is  dehiscent ) lengthwise  into  regular  pieces,  called 
valves. 

FIG.  300.  Samara  or  key  of  the  White  Ash.  301.  Samara  of  the  American  Elm. 

FIG.  302.  Follicle  of  Marsh-Marigold  (Caltha  palustris). 

FIG.  303.  Legume  of  a Sweet  Pea,  opened. 

FIG.  304.  Loment  or  jointed  legume  of  Tick-Trefoil  (Uesmodiumj. 


132 


THE  FRUIT. 


[LESSON  20. 


358.  Dehiscence  of  a pod  resulting  from  a compound  pistil,  when 
regular,  takes  place  in  one  of  two  principal  ways,  which  are  best 

shown  in  pods  of  two  or  three  cells.  Either  the  pod 
down  the  middle  of  the  back  of  each  cell, 
dehiscence  is  loculicidal,  as  in  Fig.  305  ; or 
trough  the  partitions,  after  which  each  cell 
J generally  opens  at  its  inner  angle,  when  it 
is  septicidal,  as  in  Fig.  306.  These  names 
are  of  Latin  derivation,  the  first  meaning 
“ cutting  into  the  cells  ” ; the  second,  “ cut- 
ting through  the  partitions.”  Of  the  first 
sort,  the  Lily  and  Iris  (Fig.  305)  are  good 
examples ; of  the  second,  the  Rhododen- 
dron, Azalea,  and  St.  John’s-wort.  From 
the  structure  of  the  pistil  (305-311)  the 
student  will  readily  see,  that  the  line  down 
the  back  of  each  cell  answers  to  the  dorsal  suture  of  the  carpel ; so 
that  the  pod  opens  by  this  when  loculicidal,  while  it  separates  into 
its  component  carpels,  which  open  as  follicles,  when  septicidal. 
Some  pods  open  both  ways,  and  so  split  into  twice  as  many  valves 
as  the  carpels  of  which  they  are  formed. 

359.  In  loculicidal  dehiscence  the  valves  naturally  bear  the  par- 
titions on  their  middle ; in  the  septicidal,  half  the  thickness  of  a 
partition  is  borne  on  the  margin  of  each  valve.  See  the  diagrams, 
Fig.  307-309.  A variation  of  either  mode  sometimes  occurs,  as 


shown  in  the  diagram,  Fig.  309,  where  the  valves  break  away  from 
the  partitions.  This  is  called  septifragal  dehiscence  ; and  may  be 
seen  in  the  Morning-Glory. 

360.  Three  remaining  sorts  of  pods  are  distinguished  by  proper 
names,  viz. : — 


FIG.  305.  Capsule  of  Iris  (with  loculicidal  dehiscence),  below  cut  across. 

FIG.  306.  Pod  of  a Marsh  St.  John’s-wort,  with  septicidal  dehiscence. 

FIG.  307.  Diagram  of  septicidal  j 308,  of  loculicidal ; and  309,  of  septifragal  dehiscence. 


LESSON  20.] 


MULTIPLE  FRUITS. 


133 


361.  Tile  Silique  (Fig.  310),  the  peculiar  pod  of  the  Mustard  fam- 
ily ; which  is  two-celled  by  a false  partition  stretched  across  between 
two  parietal  placentae.  It  generally  opens  by  two  valves 
from  below  upwards,  and  the  placentae  with  the  partition 
are  left  behind  when  the  valves  fall  off. 

362.  A Silicle  or  Pouch  is  only  a short  and  broad  silique, 
like  that  of  the  Shepherd’s  Purse,  of  the  Candy-tuft,  &c. 

363.  The  Pyxis  is  a pod  which  opens  by  a circular  hori- 
zontal line,  the  upper  part  forming  a lid,  as 
in  Purslane  (Fig.  311),  the  Plantain,  Hen- 
bane, &c.  In  these  the  dehiscence  extends 
all  round,  or  is  circumcissile.  So  it  does 
in  Fig.  298,  which  represents  a sort  of  one-  310 
seeded  pyxis.  In  Jeffersonia  or  Twin-leaf,  the  line 
does  not  separate  quite  round,  but  leaves  a portion 
to  form  a hinge  to  the  lid. 

364.  Multiple  or  Collective  Fruits  (334)  are,  properly  speaking, 
masses  of  fruits,  resulting  from  several  or  many  blossoms,  aggre- 
gated into  one  body.  The  pine-apple,  mulberry,  Osage-orange,  and 
the  fig,  are  fruits  of  this  kind.  This  latter  is  a peculiar  form,  how- 
ever, being  to  a mulberry  nearly  what  a Rose-hip  is  to  a strawberry 
(Fig.  279,  280),  namely,  with  a hollow  receptacle  bearing  the  flowers 
concealed  inside  ; and  the  whole  eatable  part  is  this  pulpy  common 
receptacle,  or  hollow  thickened  flower-stalk. 

365.  A Strobile,  or  Cone  (Fig.  314),  is  the  pe- 
culiar multiple  fruit  of  Pines,  Cypresses,  and 
the  like ; hence  named  Coniferce , viz.  cone- 
bearing plants.  As  already  shown  (322),  these 
cones  are  made  of  open  pistils , mostly  in  the 
form  of  flat  scales,  regularly  overlying  each 
other,  and  pressed  together  in  a spike  or  head. 

Each  scale  bears  one  or  two  naked  seeds  on  its  inner  face.  When 
the  cone  is  ripe  and  dry,  the  scales  turn  back  or  diverge,  and  the 
seed  peels  off  and  falls,  generally  carrying  with  it  a wing,  which  was 
a part  of  the  lining  of  the  scale,  and  which  facilitates  the  dispersion 
of  the  seeds  by  the  wind  (Fig.  312,  313).  In  Arbor- Vitae,  the  scales 

FIG.  310.  Silique  of  Spring  Cress  (Cardamine  rhomboidea),  opening. 

FIG.  311.  The  pyxis,  or  pod,  of  the  common  Purslane 

FIG.  312.  Inside  view  of  a scale  from  the  cone  of  Pitch-Pine  ; with  one  of  the  seeds 
(Fig.  313)  detached  ; the  other  in  its  place  on  the  scale. 

12 


134 


THE  SEED. 


[LESSON  21. 


of  the  small  cone  are  few,  and  not  very  unlike  the  leaves  (Fig.  265). 
In  Cypress  they  are  very  thick  at  the  top  and  narrow  at  the  base,  so 
as  to  make  a peculiar  sort  of  closed  cone.  In  Juniper  and  Red  Ce- 
dar, the  few  scales  of  the  very  small  cone  become  fleshy,  and  ripen 
into  a fruit  which  might  be  taken  for  a berry. 


314 


LESSON  XXI. 


THE  SEED. 


366.  The  ovules  (323),  when  they  have  an  embryo  (or  unde- 
veloped plantlet,  16)  formed  in  them,  become  seeds. 

367.  The  Seed , like  the  ovule  from  which  it  originates,  consists 
of  its  coats,  or  integuments,  and  a kernel. 

368.  The  Seed-Coats  are  commonly  two  (324),  the  outer  and  the 
inner.  Fig.  315  shows  the  two,  in  a seed  cut  through 
lengthwise.  The  outer  coat  is  often  hard  or  crustaceous, 
whence  it  is  called  the  Testa , or  shell  of  the  seed ; the 
inner  is  thin  and  delicate. 

369.  The  shape  and  the  markings,  so  various  in  dif- 
ferent seeds,  depend  mostly  on  the  outer  coat.  Sometimes  it  fits 


FIG.  314.  Cone  of  Pitch-Pine  (Pinus  rigida). 

FIG.  315.  Seed  of  Basswood  cut  through  lengthwise : a,  the  hilum  or  scar  ; b,  the  outer 
coat ; c,  the  inner  ; d,  the  albumen  ; e,  the  embryo. 


LESSON  21.] 


ITS  COATS  OR  COVERINGS. 


135 


the  kernel  closely ; sometimes  it  is  expanded  into  a wing,  as  in  the 
Trumpet-Creeper  (Fig.  316),  and  occasionally  this  wing  is  cut  up 
into  shreds  or  tufts,  as  in  the  Catalpa ; or  instead  of  a 
wing  it  may  bear  a coma,  or  tuft  of  long  and  soft  hairs,  ~ 
such  as  we  find  in  the  Milkweed  or  Silkweed  (Fig.  317). 

The  object  of  wings  or  downy  tufts  is  to  render  the  seeds 
buoyant,  so  that  they  may  be  widely  dispersed  by  the 
winds.  This  is  clear,  not  only  from  their  evident  adap- 
tation to  this  purpose,  but  also  from  the  interesting  fact  316 
that  winged  and  tufted  seeds  are  found  only  in  fruits  that  split  open 
at  maturity,  never  in  those  that  remain  closed.  The  coat  of  some 
seeds  is  beset  with  long  hairs  or  wool.  Cotton,  one  of 
the  most  important  vegetable  products,  — since  it  forms  /L™ 
the  principal  clothing  of  the  larger  part  of  the  human  If 
race,  — consists  of  the  long  and  woolly  hairs  which 
thickly  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  seed.  Certain 
seeds  have  an  additional,  but  more  or  less  incomplete 
covering,  outside  of  the  real  seed-coats,  called  an 
370.  Aril,  or  Arillus.  The  loose  and  transparent  bag 
which  encloses  the  seed  of  the  White  Water-Lily  (Fig. 

318)  is  of  this  kind.  So  is  the  mace  of  the  nutmeg;  and  also  the 
scarlet  pulp  around  the  seeds  of  the  Waxwork  (Celastrus) 
and  Strawberry-bush  (Euonymus),  so  ornamental  in  autumn, 
after  the  pods  burst.  The  aril  is  a growth  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  seed-stalk,  or  the  placenta. 

371.  The  names  of  the  parts  of  the  seed  and  of  its  kinds 
318  are  the  same  as  in  the  ovule.  The  scar  left  where  the  seed- 
stalk  separates  is  called  £ 
the  Hilum.  The  orifice 
of  the  ovule,  now  closed 
up,  and  showing  only  a 
small  point  or  mark,  is 
named  the  Micropyle.  The  terms  orthotropous,  anatropous,  &c. 


FIG.  316.  A winged  seed  of  the  Trumpet-Creeper. 

FIG.  317.  Seed  of  Milkweed,  with  a coma  or  tuft  of  long  silky  hairs  at  one  end. 

FIG.  318.  Seed  of  White  Water-Lily,  enclosed  in  its  aril. 

FIG.  319.  Seed  of  a Violet  (anatropous) : a,  hilum;  b,  rhaphe;  c,  chalaza. 

FIG.  320.  Seed  of  a Larkspur  (also  anatropous) ; the  parts  lettered  as  in  the  last. 

FIG.  321.  The  same,  cut  through  lengthwise:  a,  the  hilum;  c,  chalaza ; d,  outer  seed- 
coat  ; e,  inner  seed-coat ; /,  the  albumen  ; g,  the  minute  embryo. 

FIG.  322.  Seed  of  a St.  John’s-wort,  divided  lengthwise ; here  the  whole  kernel  is 
embryo. 


136 


THE  SEED. 


[LESSON  21. 


apply  to  seeds  just  as  they  do  to  ovules  (325)  ; and  so  do  those 
terms  which  express  the  direction  of  the  ovule  or  the  seed  in  the 
cell ; such  as  erect , ascending , horizontal , ‘pendulous , or  suspended 
(323)  : therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  explain  them  anew.  The 
accompanying  figures  (Fig.  319-322)  show  all  the  parts  of  the 
most  common  kind  of  seed,  namely,  the  anatropous. 

372.  The  Kernel,  or  Nucleus,  is  the  whole  body  of  the  seed  within  the 
coats.  In  many  seeds  the  kernel  is  all  Embryo  ; in  others  a large 
part  of  it  is  the  Albumen. 

373.  The  Albumen  of  the  seed  is  an  accumulation  of  nourishing 
matter  (starch,  &c.),  commonly  surrounding  the  embryo,  and  des- 
tined to  nourish  it  when  it  begins  to  grow,  as  was  explained  in  the 
earlier  Lessons  (30-32).  It  is  the  floury  part  of  wheat,  corn  (Fig. 
38,  39),  buckwheat,  and  the  like.  But  it  is  not  always  mealy  in 
texture.  In  Poppy-seeds  it  is  oily.  In  the  seeds  of  Pasony  and 
Barberry,  and  in  the  cocoanut,  it  is  jleshy  ; in  coffee  it  is  corneous 
(that  is,  hard  and  tough,  like  horn) ; in  the  Ivory  Palm  it  has  the 
hardness  as  well  as  the  general  appearance  of  ivory,  and  is  now 
largely  used  as  a substitute  for  it  in  the  fabrication  of  small  objects. 
However  solid  its  texture,  the  albumen  always  softens  and  partly 
liquefies  during  germination  ; when  a considerable  portion  of  it  is 
transformed  into  sugar,  or  into  other  forms  of  fluid  nourishment,  on 
which  the  growing  embryo  may  feed. 

374.  The  Embryo,  or  Germ , is  the  part  to  which  all  the  rest  of  the 
seed,  and  also  the  fruit  and  the  flower,  are  subservient.  When  the 
embryo  is  small  and  its  parts  little  developed,  the  albumen  is  the 
more  abundant,  and  makes  up  the  principal  bulk  of  the  seed,  as  in 
Fig.  30,  321,  325.  On  the  other  hand,  in  many  seeds  there  is  no 
albumen  at  all ; but  the  strong  embryo  forms  the  whole  kernel ; as 
in  the  Maple  (Fig.  2,  3),  Pumpkin  (Fig.  9),  Almond,  Plum,  and 
Apple  (Fig.  11,  12),  Beech  (Fig.  13),  and  the  like.  Then,  what- 
ever nourishment  is  needed  to  establish  the  plantlet  in  the  soil  is 
stored  up  in  the  body  of  the  embryo  itself,  mostly  in  its  seed-leaves. 
And  these  accordingly  often  become  very  large  and  thick,  as  in  the 
almond,  bean,  and  pea  (Fig.  16,  19),  acorn  (Fig.  21),  chestnut,  and 
horsechestnut  (Fig.  23,  24).  Besides  these,  Fig.  25,  26,  30  to  37, 
43,  and  45  exhibit  various  common  forms  of  the  embryo ; and  also 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  it  is  placed  in  the  albumen ; being 
sometimes  straight,  and  sometimes  variously  coiled  up  or  packed 
away. 


LESSON  21.] 


THE  EMBRYO. 


137 


375.  The  embryo,  being  a rudimentary  plantlet,  ready  formed  in 
the  seed,  has  only  to  grow  and  develop  its  parts  to  become  a young 
plant  (15).  Even  in  the  seed  these  parts  are  generally  distinguish- 
able, and  are  sometimes  very  conspicuous  ; as  in  a Pumpkin-seed,  for 
example  (Fig.  323,  324).  They  are,  first, 

37  6.  The  Radicle,  or  rudimentary  stemlet,  which  is  sometimes  long 
and  slender,  and  sometimes  very  short,  as  we  may  see  in  the  numer- 
ous figures  already  referred  to.  In  the  seed  it  always 
points  to  the  micropyle  (371),  or  what  answers  to  the 
foramen  of  the  ovule  (Fig.  325,  326).  As  to  its  po- 
sition in  the  fruit,  it  is  said  to  be  inferior  when  it  points 
to  the  base  of  the  pericarp,  superior  when  it  points  to 
its  summit,  &c.  The  base  or  free  end  of  the  radicle 
gives  rise  to  the  root ; the  other  extremity  bears  323  324 

377.  The  Cotyledons  or  Seed-Leaves.  With  these  in  various  forms  we 
have  already  become  familiar.  The  number  of 
cotyledons  has  also  been  explained  to  be  impor- 
tant (32,  33).  In  Corn  (Fig.  40),  and  in  all 
Grasses,  Lilies,  and  the  like,  we  have  a 

Monocotyledonous  embryo,  namely,  one  fur- 
nished with  only  a single  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf.  — Nearly  all  the 
rest  of  our  illustrations  exhibit  various  forms  of  the 

Dicotyledonous  embryo ; namely,  with  a pair  of  cotyledons  or  seed- 
leaves,  always  opposite  each  other.  In  the  Pine  family  we  find  a 
Polycotyledonous  embryo  (Fig.  45,  46)  ; that  is,  one  with  several, 
or  more  than  two,  seed-leaves,  arranged  in  a circle  or  whorl. 

378.  The  Plumule  is  the  little  bud,  or  rudiment  of  the  next  leaf  or 
pair  of  leaves  after  the  seed-leaves.  It  appears  at  the  summit  of 
the  radicle,  between  the  cotyledons  when  there  is  a pair  of  them, 
as  in  Fig.  324,  14,  24,  &c. ; or  the  cotyledon  when  only  one  is 
wrapped  round  it,  as  in  Indian  Corn,  Fig.  40.  In  germination  the 
plumule  develops  upward,  to  form  the  ascending  trunk  or  stem  of 
the  plant,  while  the  other  end  of  the  radicle  grows  downward, 
and  becomes  the  root. 

FIG.  323.  Embryo  of  the  Pumpkin,  seen  flatwise.  324.  Same  cut  through  and  viewed 
edgewise,  enlarged  ; the  small  plumule  seen  between  the  cotyledons  at  their  base. 

FIG.  325.  Seed  of  a Violet  (Fig.  319)  cut  through,  showing  the  embryo  in  the  section, 
edgewise ; being  an  anatropous  seed,  the  radicle  of  the  straight  embryo  points  down  to  the 
base  near  the  hilum. 

FIG.  326.  Similar  section  of  the  orthotropous  seed  of  Buckwheat.  Here  the  radicle  points 
directly  away  from  the  hilum,  and  to  the  apex  of  the  seed  j also  the  thin  cotyledons  happen 
in  this  plant  to  be  bent  round  into  the  same  direction. 

12  * 


138 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW. 


[lesson  22. 


379.  This  completes  the  circle,  and  brings  our  vegetable  history 
round  to  its  starting-point  in  the  Second  Lesson  ; namely,  The 
Growth  of  the  Plant  from  the  Seed. 


380.  A plant  grows  from  the  seed,  and  from  a tiny  embryo,  like 
that  of  the  Maple  (Fig.  327),  becomes  perhaps  a large  tree,  pro- 
ducing every  year  a crop  of  seeds,  to  grow  in  their  turn  in  the  same 
way.  But  how  does  the  plant  grow  ? A little  seedling,  weighing 
only  two  or  three  grains,  often  doubles  its  weight  every  week  of  its 
early  growth,  and  in  time  may  develop  into  a huge  bulk,  of  many 
tons’  weight  of  vegetable  matter.  How  is  this  done  ? What  is  vege- 
table matter  ? Where  did  it  all  come  from  ? And  by  what  means 
is  it  increased  and  accumulated  in  plants  ? Such  questions  as  these 
will  now  naturally  arise  in  any  inquiring  mind ; and  we  must  try  to 
answer  them. 

381.  Growth  is  the  increase  of  a living  thing  in  size  and  substance. 
It  appears  so  natural  to  us  that  plants  and  animals  should  grow,  that 
people  rarely  think  of  it  as  requiring  any  explanation.  They  say 
that  a thing  is  so  because  it  grew  so.  Still  we  wish  to  know  how 
the  growth  takes  place. 

382.  Now,  in  the  foregoing  Lessons  we  explained  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  plant,  with  all  its  organs,  by  beginning  with  the  seedling 
plantlet,  and  following  it  onward  in  its  development  through  the 


327 


LESSON  XXII. 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW. 


FIG.  327.  Germinating  embryo  of  a Maple. 


LESSON  22.] 


FORMATION  OF  THE  EMBRYO. 


139 


whole  course  of  vegetation  (12,  &c.).  So,  in  attempting  to  learn 
how  this  growth  took  place,  it  will  be  best  to  adopt  the  same  plan, 
and  to  commence  with  the  commencement,  that  is,  wjth  the  first 
formation  of  a plant.  This  may  seem  not  so  easy,  because  we  have 
to  begin  with  parts  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a good  microscope, 
and  requiring  much  skill  to  dissect  and  exhibit.  But  it  is  by  no 
means  difficult  to  describe  them ; and  with  the  aid  of  a few  figures 
we  may  hope  to  make  the  whole  mat- 
ter clear. 

383.  The  embryo  in  the  ripe  seed 
is  already  a plant  in  miniature,  as  we 
have  learned  in  the  Second,  Third, 
and  Twenty-first  Lessons.  It  is  al- 
ready provided  with  stem  and  leaves. 

To  learn  how  the  plant  began,  there- 
fore, we  must  go  back  to  an  earlier 
period  still ; namely,  to  the  forma- 
tion and 

384.  Growth  of  the  Embryo  itself. 

For  this  purpose  we  return  to  the 
ovule  in  the  pistil  of  the  flower  (323). 

During  or  soon  after  blossoming,  a 
cavity  appears  in  the  kernel  or  nu- 
cleus of  the  ovule  (Fig.  lined 

with  a delicate  membrane,  and  so 
forming  a closed  sac,  named  the 
embryo-sac  (s).  In  this  sac  or  cav-  ° 
ity,  at  its  upper  end  (viz.  at  the 
end  next  the  orifice  of  the  ovule), 
appears  a roundish  little  vesicle  or 
bladder-like  body  (v),  perhaps  less 
than  one  thousandth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  This  is  the  embryo,  or  rudimentary  new  plant,  at  its 
very  beginning.  But  this  vesicle  never  becomes  anything  more 
than  a grain  of  soft  pulp,  unless  the  ovule  has  been  acted  upon  by 
the  pollen. 

FIG.  328.  Magnified  pistil  of  Buckwheat ; the  ovary  and  ovule  divided  lengthwise  : some 
pollen  on  the  stigmas,  one  grain  distinctly  showing  its  tube,  which  penetrates  the  style,  re- 
appears in  the  cavity  of  the  ovary,  enters  the  mouth  of  the  ovule  (o),  and  reaches  the  sur- 
face of  the  embryo-sac  (s),  near  the  embryonal  vesicle  (w). 


140 


HOW  PLANTS  GROW. 


[lesson  22. 


385.  The  pollen  (297)  which  falls  upon  the  stigma  grows  there 
in  a peculiar  way  : its  delicate  inner  coat  extends  into  a tube  (the 
pollen-tube),  which  sinks  into  the  loose  tissue  of  the  stigma  and 
the  interior  of  the  style,  something  as  the  root  of  a seedling 
sinks  into  the  loose  soil,  reaches  the  cavity  of  the  ovary,  and  at 
length  penetrates  the  orifice  of  an  ovule.  The  point  of  the  pollen- 
tube  reaches  the  surface  of  the  embryo-sac,  and  in 
some  unexplained  way  causes  a particle  of  soft  pulpy 
or  mucilaginous  matter  (Fig.  328)  to  form  a mem- 
branous coat  and  to  expand  into  a vesicle,  which  is 
the  germ  of  the  embryo. 

386.  This  vesicle  (shown  detached  and  more  mag- 
nified in  Fig.  329)  is  a specimen  of  what  botanists  call 
a Cell.  Its  wall  of  very  delicate  membrane  encloses  a 
mucilaginous  liquid,  in  which  there  are  often  some 
minute  grains,  and  commonly  a larger  soft  mass 
(called  its  nucleus). 

387.  Growth  takes  place  by  this  vesicle  or  cell, 
after  enlarging  to  a certain  size,  dividing  by  the  for- 
mation of  a cross  partition  into  two  such  cells,  co- 
hering together  (Fig.  330) ; one  of  these  into  two 
more  (Fig.  331)  ; and  these  repeating  the  process 
by  partitions  formed  in  both  directions  (Fig.  332) ; 
forming  a cluster  or  mass  of  cells,  essentially  like  the 

first,  and  all  proceeding  from  it.  After  increasing  in  number  for 
some  time  in  this  way,  S33 
and  by  a continuation  of  A 
the  same  process,  the  em- 
bryo  begins  to  shape  it- 
self ; the  upper  end  forms 
the  radicle  or  root-end, 
while  the  other  end  shows  a notch  between  two  lobes  (Fig.  333), 
these  lobes  become  the  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves,  and  the  embryo 
as  it  exists  in  the  seed  is  at  length  completed  (Fig.  336) 


FIG.  329.  Vesicle  or  first  cell  of  the  embryo,  with  a portion  of  the  summit  of  the  embryo- 
sac,  detached.  330.  Same,  more  advanced,  divided  into  two  cells.  331.  Same,  a little  far- 
ther advanced,  consisting  of  three  cells.  332.  Same,  still  more  advanced,  consisting  of  a 
little  mass  of  young  cells. 

FIG.  333.  Forming  embryo  of  Buckwheat,  moderately  magnified,  showing  a nick  at  the 
end  where  the  cotyledons  are  to  be.  334.  Same,  more  advanced  in  growth.  335.  Same, 
still  farther  advanced.  336.  The  completed  embryo,  displayed  and  straightened  out  j the 
same  as  shown  in  a section  when  folded  together  in  Fig.  326. 


LESSON  22.] 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PLANTLET. 


141 


388.  The  Growth  of  the  Plantlct  when  it  springs  from  the  seed  is 
only  a continuation  of  the  same  process.  The  bladder-like  cells  of 
which  the  embryo  consists  multiply  in  number  by  the  repeated 
division  of  each  cell  into  two.  And  the  plantlet  is  merely  the  ag- 
gregation of  a vastly  larger  number  of  these  cells.  This  may  be 
clearly  ascertained  by  magnifying  any  part  of  a young  plantlet.  The 
young  root,  being  more  transparent 
than  the  rest,  answers  the  purpose 
best.  Fig.  56,  on  page  30,  repre-  pj 
sents  the  end  of  the  rootlet  of  Fig. 

55,  magnified  enough  to  show  the 
cells  that  form  the  surface.  Fig. 

337  and  338  are  two  small  bits  of 
the  surface  more  highly  magnified, 
showing  the  cells  still  larger.  And 
if  we  make  a thin  slice  through  the 
young  root  both  lengthwise  and 
crosswise,  and  view  it  under  a good 
microscope  (Fig.  340),  we  may  per- 
ceive that  the  whole  interior  is  made  up  of  just  such  cells.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  young  stem  and  the  leaves  (Fig.  355,  357). 
It  is  essentially  the  same  in  the  full-grown  herb  and  the  tree. 

389.  So  the  plant  is  an  aggregation  of  countless  millions  of  little 
vesicles,  or  cells  (Fig.  339),  as  they  are  called,  essentially  like  the 

cell  it  began  with  in  the  formation  of  the  embryo  (Fig. 
329)  ; and  this  first  cell  is  the  foundation  of  the  whole 
structure,  or  the  ancestor  of  all  the  rest.  And  a plant 
is  a kind  of  structure,  built  up  of  these  individual  cells, 
something  as  a house  is  built  of  bricks,  — only  the 
bricks  or  cells  are  not  brought  to  the  forming  plant, 
but  are  made  in  it  and  by  it ; or,  to  give  a better 
comparison,  the  plant  is  constructed  much  as  a honeycomb  is  built 
up  of  cells, — only  the  plant  constructs  itself,  and  shapes  its  own 
materials  into  fitting  forms. 

390.  And  vegetable  growth  consists  of  two  things;  — 1st,  the  ex- 
pansion of  each  cell  until  it  gets  its  full  size  (which  is  commonly  not 
more  than  ¥£<y  of  an  inch  in  diameter) ; and  2d,  the  multiplication 


FIG.  337.  Tissue  from  the  rootlet  of  a seedling  Maple,  magnified,  showing  root-hairs. 
338.  A small  portion,  more  magnified. 

FIG.  339.  One  cell,  like  those  of  Fig.  340,  detached. 


142 


VEGETABLE  FABRIC. 


[lesson  23. 


of  the  cells  in  number.  It  is  by  the  latter,  of  course,  that  the  prin- 
cipal increase  of  plants  in  bulk  takes  place. 


LESSON  XXIII. 

VEGETABLE  FABRIC  : CELLULAR  TISSUE. 

391.  Organic  Structure.  A mineral  — such  as  a crystal  of  spar,  or 
a piece  of  marble  — may  be  divided  into  smaller  and  still  smaller 
pieces,  and  yet  the  minutest  portion  that  can  be  seen  with  the  mi- 
croscope will  have  all  the  characters  of  the  larger  body,  and  be 
capable  of  still  further  subdivision,  if  we  had  the  means  of  doing  it, 
into  just  such  particles,  only  of  smaller  size.  A plant  may  also  be 
divided  into  a number  of  similar  parts : first  into  branches ; then 
each  branch  or  stem,  into  joints  or  similar  parts  (34),  each  with  its 
leaf  or  pair  of  leaves.  But  if  we  divide  these  into  pieces,  the  pieces 
are  not  all  alike,  nor  have  they  separately  the  properties  of  the 
whole  ; they  are  not  whole  things,  but  fragments  or  slices. 

392.  If  now,  under  the  microscope,  we  subdivide  a leaf,  or  a piece 
of  stem  or  root,  we  come  down  in  the  same  way  to  the  set  of  similar 
things  it  is  made  of,  — to  cavities  with  closed  walls,  — to  Cells,  as  we 
call  them  (386),  essentially  the  same  everywhere,  however  they  may 
vary  in  shape.  These  are  the  units,  or  the  elements  of  which  every 
part  consists  ; and  it  is  their  growth  and  their  multiplication  which 


FIG.  340.  View  of  a little  cellular  tissue  of  a rootlet,  cut  crosswise  and  lengthwise. 


LESSON  23.] 


CELLULAR  TISSUE. 


143 


make  the  growth  of  the  plant,  as  was  shown  in  the  last  Lesson. 
We  cannot  divide  them  into  similar  smaller  parts  having  the  prop- 
erties of  the  whole,  as  we  may  any  mineral  body.  We  may  cut 
them  in  pieces ; but  the  pieces  are  only  mutilated  parts  of  a cell. 
This  is  a peculiarity  of  organic  things  (2,  3)  : it  is  organic  structure. 
Being  composed  of  cells,  the  main  structure  of  plants  is  called 

393.  Cellular  Tissue.  The  cells,  as  they  multiply,  build  up  the 
tissues  or  fabric  of  the  plant,  which,  as  we  have  said  (389),  may  be 
likened  to  a wall  or  an  edifice  built  of  bricks,  or  still  better  to  a 
honeycomb  composed  of  ranges  of  cells  (Fig.  340). 

394.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  united  wrhere  they  touch  each 
other ; and  so  the  partition  appears  to  be  a simple  membrane, 
although  it  is  really  double  ; as  may  be  shown  by  boiling  the  tissue 
a few  minutes  and  then  pulling  the  parts  asunder.  And  in  soft  fruits 
the  cells  separate  in  ripening,  although  they  were  perfectly  united 
into  a tissue,  when  green,  like  that  of  Fig  340. 

395.  In  that  figure  the  cells  fit  together  perfectly,  leaving  no 
interstices,  except  a very  small  space  at  some  of  the  corners. 
But  in  most  leaves,  the  cells  are  loosely  heaped  together,  leaving 
spaces  or  passages  of  all  sizes  (Fig.  356)  ; and  in  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  aquatic  and  marsh  plants,  in  particular,  the  cells  are  built 
up  into  narrow  partitions,  which  form  the  sides  of  large  and  regular 
canals  or  passages  (as  shown  in  Fig.  341).  These  passages  form 
the  holes  or  cavities  so  conspicuous  on  cutting  across  any  of  these 
plants,  and  which  are  always  filled  with  air.  They  may  be  likened 
to  a stack  of  chimneys,  built  up  of  cells  in  place  of  bricks. 

396.  When  small  and  irregular,  the  interstices  are  called  inter - 
cellular  spaces  (that  is,  spaces  between  the  cells).  When  large  and 
regular,  they  are  named  intercellular  passages  or  air-passages, 

397.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  slices  of  the  root,  stem,  or  any  tissue 
where  the  cells  are  not  partly  separate,  the  boundaries  of  the  cells 
are  usually  more  or  less  six-sided,  like  the  cells  of  a honeycomb ; 
and  this  is  apt  to  be  the  case  in  whatever  direction  the  slice  is  made, 
whether  crosswise,  lengthwise,  or  obliquely.  The  reason  of  this  is 
easy  to  see.  The  natural  figure  of  the  cell  is  globular.  Cells  which 
are  not  pressed  upon  by  others  are  generally  round  or  roundish 
(except  when  they  grow  in  some  particular  direction),  as  we  see  in 
the  green  pulp  of  many  leaves.  When  a quantity  of  spheres  (such, 
for  instance,  as  a pile  of  cannon-balls)  are  heaped  up,  each  one  in  the 
interior  of  the  heap  is  touched  by  twelve  others.  If  the  spheres  be 


144 


VEGETABLE  FABRIC. 


[lesson  23. 


soft  and  yielding,  as  young  cells  are,  when  pressed  together  they  will 
become  twelve-sided,  like  that  in  Fig.  339.  And  a section  in  any 
direction  will  be  six-sided,  as  are  the  meshes  in  Fig.  340. 

398.  The  size  of  the  common  cells  of  plants  varies  from  about 
the  thirtieth  to  the  thousandth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  An  ordinary 
size  is  from  to  of  an  inch  ; so  that  there  may  generally  be 
from  27  to  125  millions  of  cells  in  the  compass  of  a cubic  inch  ! 

399.  Now  when  it  is  remembered  that  many  stems  shoot  up  at 
the  rate  of  an  inch  or  two  a day,  and  sometimes  of  three  or  four 
inches,  kpowing  the  size  of  the  cells,  we  may  form  some  conception 
of  the  rapidity  of  their  formation.  The  giant  Puff-ball  has  been 
known  to  enlarge  from  an  inch  or  so  to  nearly  a foot  in  diameter 
in  a single  night ; but  much  of  this  is  probably  owing  to  expansion. 
We  take  therefore  a more  decisive,  but  equally  extraordinary  case, 
in  the  huge  flowering  stem  of  the  Century-Plant.  After  waiting 
many  years,  or  even  for  a century,  to  gather  strength  and  materials 
for  the  effort,  Century-Plants  in  our  conservatories  send  up  a flow- 
ering stalk,  which  grows  day  after  day  at  the  rate  of  a foot  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  becomes  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  This,  sup- 
posing the  cells  to  average  -g^j-  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  requires  the 
formation  of  over  twenty  thousand  millions  of  cells  in  a day ! 

400.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  almost  always  colorless.  The 
green  color  of  leaves  and  young  bark,  and  all  the  brilliant  hues  of 
flowers,  are  due  to  the  contents  of  the  cells,  seen  through  their  more 
or  less  transparent  walls. 

401.  At  first  the  walls  are  always  very  thin.  In  all  soft  parts 
they  remain  so ; but  in  other  cases  they  thicken  on  the  inside  and 
harden,  as  we  see  in  the  stone  of  stone-fruits,  and  in  all  hard  wood 
(Fig.  345)  Sometimes  this  thickening  continues  until  the  cell  is 
nearly  filled  up  solid. 

402.  The  walls  of  cells  are  perfectly  closed  and  whole,  at  least  in 
all  young  and  living  cells.  Those  with  thickened  walls  have  thin 
places,  indeed ; but  there  are  no  holes  opening  from  one  cell  into 
another.  And  yet  through  these  closed  cells  the  sap  and  all  the 
juices  are  conveyed  from  one  end  of  the  plant  to  the  other. 

403.  Vegetable  cells  may  vary  widely  in  shape,  particularly  when 
not  combined  into  a tissue  or  solid  fabric.  The  hairs  of  plants,  for 
example,  are  cells  drawn  out  into  tubes,  or  are  composed  of  a row 
of  cells,  growing  on  the  surface.  Cotton  consists  of  simple  long  hairs 
on  the  coat  of  the  seed ; and  these  hairs  are  single  cells.  The  hair- 


LESSON  24.] 


WOOD. 


145 


like  bodies  which  abound  on  young  roots  are  very  slender  projec- 
tions of  some  of  the  superficial  cells,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  337.  Even 
the  fibres  of  wood,  and  what  are  called  vessels  in  plants,  are  only 
peculiar  forms  or  transformations  of  cells. 


341 


LESSON  XXIV. 

VEGETABLE  FABRIC  I WOOD. 

404.  Cellular  tissue,  such  as  described  in  the  last  Lesson, 
makes  up  the  whole  structure  of  all  very  young  plants,  and  the 
whole  of  Mosses  and  other  vegetables  of  the  lowest  grade,  even 
when  full  grown.  But  this  fabric  is  too  tender  or  too  brittle  to 
give  needful  strength  and  toughness  for  plants  which  are  to  rise  to 
any  considerable  height  and  support  themselves.  So  all  such  plants 
have  also  in  their  composition  more  or  less  of 

405.  Wood.  This  is  found  in  all  common  herbs,  as  well  as  in 
shrubs  and  trees ; only  there  is  not  so  much  of  it  in  proportion  to 
the  softer  cellular  tissue.  It  is  formed  very  early  in  the  growth  of 
the  root,  stem,  and  leaves ; traces  of  it  appearing  in  large  embryos 
even  while  yet  in  the  seed. 

406.  Wood  is  likewise  formed  of  cells,  — of  cells  which  at  first 
are  just  like  those  that  form  the  soft  parts  of  plants.  But  early  in 
their  growth,  some  of  these  lengthen  and  at  the  same  time  thicken 
their  walls ; these  are  what  is  called  Woody  Fibre  or  Wood-  Cells  ; 
others  grow  to  a greater  size,  have  thin  walls  with  various  markings 
upon  them,  and  often  run  together  end  to  end  so  as  to  form  pretty 

FIG.  341.  Part  of  a slice  across  the  stem  of  the  Calla  ^Ethiopica,  magnified  . 

13 


146 


VEGETABLE  FABRIC. 


[lesson  24. 


large  tubes,  comparatively ; these  are  called  Ducts , or  sometimes 
Vessels.  Wood  almost  always  consists  of  both  woody  fibres  and  ducts, 
variously  intermingled,  and  combined 
into  bundles  or  threads  which  run 
lengthwise  through  the  root  and  stem, 
and  are  spread  out  to  form  the  frame- 
work of  the  leaves  (136).  In  trees 
and  shrubs  they  are  so  numerous  and 
crowded  together,  that  they  make  a 
b solid  mass  of  wood.  In  herbs  they 
are  fewer,  and  often  scattered.  That 
is  all  the  difference. 
b 407.  The  porosity  of  some  kinds  of 
wood,  which  is  to  be  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  as  in  mahogany  and  Oak-wood,  is 
owing  to  a large  sort  of  ducts.  These 
6 generally  contain  air,  except  in  very 
b young  parts,  and  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  when  they  are  often  gorged  with 
sap,  as  we  see  in  a wounded  Grape- 
vine, or  in  the  trunk  of  a Sugar-Maple 
at  that  time.  But  in  woody  plants 
through  the  season,  the  sap  is  usually 
carried  up  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves 
by  the 

408.  Wood-Cells,  or  Woody  Fibre.  (Fig.  342-345.)  These  are 
small  tubes,  commonly  between  one  and  two  thousandths,  but  in 
Pine-wood  sometimes  two  or  three  hundredths,  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Those  from  the  tough  bark  of  the  Basswood,  shown  in  Fig. 

342,  are  only  the  fifteen-hundredth  of  an  inch  wide.  Those  of  But- 
tonwood (Fig.  345)  are  larger,  and  are  here  highly  magnified  be- 
sides. They  also  show  the  way  wood-cells  are  commonly  put  to- 
gether, namely,  with  their  tapering  ends  overlapping  each  other, — 
spliced  together,  as  it  were,  — thus  giving  more  strength  and  tough- 
ness to  the  stem,  &c. 

FIG.  342.  Two  wood-cells  from  the  inner  or  fibrous  bark  of  the  Linden  or  Basswood. 

343.  Some  tissue  of  the  wood  of  the  same,  viz.  wood-cells,  and  below  (d)  a portion  of  a 
spirally  marked  duct.  344.  A separate  wood-cell.  All  equally  magnified. 

FIG.  345.  Some  wood-cells  of  Buttonwood,  highly  magnified  : a,  thin  spots  in  the 
walls,  looking  like  holes  ; on  the  right-hand  side,  where  the  walls  are  cut  through,  these 
(J)  are  seen  in  profile. 


LESSON  24.] 


WOOD. 


147 


409.  In  hardwoods,  such  as  Hickory,  Oak,  and  Buttonwood  (Fig. 
345),  the  walls  of  these  tubes  are  very  thick,  as  well  as  dense  ; while 
in  soft  woods,  such  as  White-Pine  and  Basswood,  they  are  pretty  thin. 

410.  Wood-cells,  like  other  cells  (at  least  when  young  and  living), 
have  no  openings  ; each  has  its  own  cavity,  closed  and  independent. 
They  do  not  form  anything  like  a set  of  pipes  opening  one  into  an- 
other, so  as  to  convey  an  unbroken  stream  of  sap  through  the  plant, 
in  the  way  people  generally  suppose.  The  contents  can  pass  from  one 
cell  to  another  only  by  getting  through  the  partitions  in  some  way  or 
other.  And  so  short  are  the  individual  wood- 
cells  generally,  that,  to  rise  a foot  in  such  a tree 
as  the  Basswood,  the  sap  has  to  pass  through, 
about  two  thousand  partitions  ! 

411.  But  although  there  are  no  holes  (ex- 

cept by  breaking  away  when  old),  there  are 
plenty  of  thin  places,  which  look  like  perfora- 
tions ; and  through  these  the  sap  is  readily  trans- 
ferred from  one  cell  to  another,  in  a manner  to 
be  explained  further  on  (487).  Some  of  them  346  347 

are  exhibited  in  Fig.  345,  both  as  looked  directly  down  upon,  when 
they  appear  as  dots  or  holes,  and  in  profile  where  the  cells  are  cut 
through.  The  latter  view  shows  what  they  really  are,  namely,  very 
thin  places  in  the  thickness  of  the  wall ; and  also  that  a thin  place  in 
one  cell  exactly  corresponds  to  one  in  the  contiguous  wall  of  the  next 
cell.  In  the  wood  of  the  Pine  family,  these  thin  spots  are  much 
larger,  and  are  very  conspicuous  in  a thin  slice  of  wood  under  the 
microscope  (Fig.  346,  347)  ; — forming  stamps  impressed  as  it  were 
upon  each  fibre  of  every  tree  of  this  great  family,  by  which  it  may 
be  known  even  in  the  smallest  fragment  of  its  wood. 

412.  Wood-cells  in  the  bark  are  generally  longer,  finer,  and 
tougher  than  those  of  the  proper  wood,  and  appear  more  like  fibres. 
For  example,  Fig.  344  represents  a cell  of  the  wood  of  Basswood, 
of  average  length,  and  Fig.  342  one  (and  part  of  another)  of  the 
fibrous  bark,  both  drawn  to  the  same  scale.  As  these  long  cells 
form  the  principal  part  of  fibrous  bark,  or  bast , they  are  named  Bast- 
cells  or  Bast-jibres.  These  give  the  great  toughness  to  the  inner 
bark  of  Basswood  (i.  e.  Bast- wood)  and  of  Leather  wood ; and  they 


FIG.  346.  A bit  of  Pine-shaving,  highly  magnified,  showing  the  large  circular  thin  spots 
of  the  wall  of  the  wood-cells.  347.  A separate  wood-cell,  more  magnified,  the  varying  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  at  these  spots  showing  as  rings. 


148 


VEGETABLE  FABRIC. 


[lesson  24. 


furnish  the  invaluable  fibres  of  flax  and  hemp  ; the  wood  of  the 
stem  being  tender,  brittle,  and  destroyed  by  the  processes  which 
separate  for  use  the  tough  and  slender  bast-cells. 

413.  Ducts  (Fig.  348-350)  are  larger  than  wood-cells,  some  of 
them  having  a calibre  large  enough  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye, 

when  cut  across  (407),  although 
they  are  usually  much  too  small 
for  this.  They  are  either  long 
single  cells,  or  are  formed  of  a row 
of  cells  placed  end  to  end.  Fig. 
349,  a piece  of  a large  dotted  duct, 
and  two  of  the  ducts  in  Fig.  350, 
show  this  by  their  joints,  which 
mark  the  boundaries  of  the  several 
cells  they  are  composed  of. 

414.  The  walls  of  ducts  under  the  microscope  display  various 
kinds  of  markings.  In  what  are  called 

Dotted  Ducts  (Fig.  348,  349),  which  are  the  commonest  and  the 
largest  of  all,  — their  cut  ends  making  the  visible  porosity  of  Oak- 
wood,  — the  whole  wall  is  apparently  riddled  with  holes  ; but  until 
they  become  old,  these  are  only  thin  places. 

Spiral  Ducts , or  Spiral  Vessels , also  the  varieties  of  these  called 
Annular  or  Banded  Ducts  (Fig.  350),  are  marked  by  a delicate  fibre 
spirally  coiled,  or  by  rings  or  bands,  thickening  the  wall.  In  the 
genuine  spiral  duct,  the  thread  may  be  uncoiled,  tearing  the  trans- 
parent wall  in  pieces  ; — as  may  be  seen  by  breaking  most  young 
shoots,  or  the  leaves  of  Strawberry  or  Amaryllis,  and  pulling  the 
broken  ends  gently  asunder,  uncoiling  these  gossamer  threads  in 
abundance.  In  Fig.  355,  some  of  these  various  sorts  of  ducts  or 
vessels  are  shown  in  their  place  in  the  wood. 

415.  Milk-  Vessels , Turpentine - Vessels , Oil-Receptacles , and  the 
like,  are  generally  canals  or  cavities  formed  between  or  among  the 
cells,  and  filled  with  the  particular  products  of  the  plant. 


FIG.  348.  Part  of  a dotted  duct  from  a Grape-vine.  349.  A similar  one,  evidently  com- 
posed of  a row  of  cells.  350.  Part  of  a bundle  of  spiral  and  annular  ducts  from  the  stem 
of  Polygonum  orientate,  or  Princes’  Feather.  All  highly  magnified. 


LESSON  25.] 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  ROOT. 


149 


LESSON  XXV. 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  ROOT,  STEM,  AND  LEAVES. 

416.  Having  in  the  last  preceding  Lessons  learned  what  the 
materials  of  the  vegetable  fabric  are,  we  may  now  briefly  consider 
how  they  are  put  together,  and  how  they  act  in  carrying  on  the 
plant’s  operations. 

4 17.  The  root  and  the  stem  are  so  much  alike  in  their  internal 
structure,  that  a description  of  the  anatomy  of  the  latter  will  answer 
for  the  former  also. 

418.  The  Structure  Of  the  Rootlets,  however,  or  the  tip  of  the  root, 
demands  a moment’s  attention.  The  tip  of  the  root  is  the  newest 
part,  and  is  constantly  renewing  itself  so  long  as  the  plant  is  active 
(67).  It  is  shown  magnified  in  Fig.  56,  and  is  the  same  in  all  rootlets 
as  in  the  first  root  of  the  seedling.  The  new  roots,  or  their  new 
parts,  are  mainly  concerned  in  imbibing  moisture  from  the  ground  ; 
and  the  newer  they  are,  the  more  actively  do  they  absorb.  The  ab- 
sorbing ends  of  roots  are  entirely  composed  of  soft,  new,  and  very 
thin-walled  cellular  tissue ; it  is  only  farther  back  that  some  wood- 
cells  and  ducts  are  found.  The  moisture  (and  probably  also  air) 
presented  to  them  is  absorbed  through  the  delicate  walls,  which,  like 
those  of  the  cells  in  the  interior,  are  destitute  of  openings  or  pores 
visible  even  under  the  highest  possible  magnifying  power. 

419.  But  as  the  rootlet  grows  older,  the  cells  of  its  external  layer 
harden  their  walls,  and  form  a sort  of  skin,  or  epidermis  (like  that 
which  everywhere  covers  the  stem  and  foliage  above  ground),  which 
greatly  checks  absorption.  Roots  accordingly  cease  very  actively  to 
imbibe  moisture  almost  as  soon  as  they  stop  growing  (67). 

420.  Many  of  the  cells  of  the  surface  of  young  rootlets  send  out  a 
prolongation  in  the  form  of  a slender  hair-like  tube,  closed  of  course 
at  the  apex,  but  at  the  base  opening  into  the  cavity  of  the  cell. 
These  tubes  or  root-hairs  (shown  in  Fig.  55  and  56,  and  a few  of 
them,  more  magnified,  in  Fig.  337  and  338),  sent  out  in  all  direc- 
tions into  the  soil,  vastly  increase  the  amount  of  absorbing  surface 
which  the  root  presents  to  it. 

421.  Structure  of  the  Stem  (also  of  the  body  of  the  root).  At  the 
beginning,  when  the  root  and  stem  spring  from  the  seed,  they  consist 

13  * 


150  ANATOMY  OF  ENDOGENOUS  [LESSON  25. 

almost  entirely  of  soft  and  tender  cellular  tissue.  But  as  they  grow, 
wood  begins  at  once  to  be  formed  in  them. 

422.  This  woody  material  is  arranged  in  the  stem  in  two  very 
different  ways  in  different  plants,  making  two  sorts  of  wood.  One 
sort  we  see  in  a Palm-stem,  a rattan,  and  a Corn-stalk  (Fig.  351)  ; 
the  other  we  are  familiar  with  in  Oak,  Maple,  and  all  our  common 
kinds  of  wood.  In  the  first,  the  wood  is  made  up  of  separate  threads, 
scattered  here  and  there  throughout  the  whole  diameter  of  the  stem. 
In  the  second  the  wood  is  all  collected  to  form  a layer  (in  a slice 
across  appearing  as  a ring)  of  wood,  between  a central  cellular  part 
which  has  none  in  it,  the  Pith , and  an  outer  cellular  part,  the  Bark . 
This  last  is  the  plan  of  all  our  Northern  trees  and  shrubs,  and  of  the 
greater  part  of  our  herbs.  The  first  kind  is 

423.  The  Endogenous  Stem  ; so  named  from  two  Greek  words  mean- 
ing “ inside-growing,”  because,  when  it  lasts  from  year  to  year,  the 

new  wood  which  is  added  is  interspersed  among 
the  older  threads  of  wood,  and  in  old  stems  the 
hardest  and  oldest  wood  is  near  the  surface,  and 
the  youngest  and  softest  towards  the  centre.  All 
the  plants  represented  in  Fig.  47,  on  p.  19,  (ex- 
cept the  anomalous  Cycas,)  are  examples  of  En- 
dogenous stems.  And  all  such  belong  to  plants 
with  only  one  cotyledon  or  seed-leaf  to  the  em- 
bryo (32).  Botanists  therefore  call  them  Endoge- 
nous or  Monocotyledonous  Plants,  using  sometimes 
351  one  name,  and  sometimes  the  other.  Endogenous 

stems  have  no  separate  pith  in  the  centre,  no  distinct  bark,  and  no 
layer  or  ring  of  wood  between  these  two  ; but  the  threads  of  wood 
are  scattered  throughout  the  whole,  without  any  particular  order. 
This  is  very  different  from 

424.  The  Exogenous  Stem,  the  one  we  have  most  to  do  with,  since 
all  our  Northern  trees  and  shrubs  are  constructed  on  this  plan.  It 
belongs  to  all  plants  which  have  two  cotyledons  to  the  embryo  (or 
more  than  two,  such  as  Pines,  33)  ; so  that  we  call  these  either 
Exogenous  or  Dicotyledonous  Plants  (16),  accordingly  as  we  take 
the  name  from  the  stem  or  from  the  embryo. 

425.  In  the  Exogenous  stem,  as  already  stated,  the  wood  is  all 
collected  into  one  zone,  surrounding  a pith  of  pure  cellular  tissue  in 
the  centre,  and  surrounded  by  a distinct  and  separable  bark,  the 

FIG.  351.  Section  of  a Corn-stalk  (an  endogemus  stem),  both  crosswise  and  lengthwise. 


LESSON  25.] 


AND  EXOGENOUS  STEMS. 


151 


outer  part  of  which  is  also  cellular.  This  structure  is  very  familiar 
in  common  wood.  It  is  really  just  the  same  in  the  stem  of  an  herb, 
only  the  wood  is  much  less  in  quantity.  Compare,  for 
instance,  a cross-section  of  the  stem  of  Flax  (Fig.  352) 
with  that  of  a shoot  of  Maple  or  Horsechestnut  of 
the  same  age.  In  an  herb,  the  wood  at  the  beginning 
consists  of  separate  threads  or  little  wedges  of  wood ; 
but  these,  however  few  and  scattered  they  may  be,  are 
all  so  placed  in  the 
stem  as  to  mark  out 
a zone  (or  in  the 
cross-section  a ring) 
of  wood,  dividing  the 
pith  within  from  the 
bark  without. 

426.  The  accompa- 
nying figures  (which 
are  diagrams  rather 
than  exact  delinea- 
tions) may  serve  to 
illustrate  the  anat- 
omy  of  a woody  f' 
exogenous  stem,  of 
one  yefir  old.  The 
parts  are  explained 
in  the  references  be- 
low. In  the  centre  is 
th ePith.  Surround- 
ing this  is  the  layer 
of  Wood,  consisting  both  of  wood-cells  and  of  ducts  or  vessels.  From 
the  pith  to  the  bark  on  all  sides  run  a set  of  narrow  plates  of  cellular 
tissue,  called  Medullary  Rays : these  make  the  silver-grain  of  wood. 
On  the  cross-section  they  appear  merely  as  narrow  lines ; but  in 
wood  cut  lengthwise  parallel  to  them,  their  faces  show  as  glimmer- 

FIG.  352.  Cross-section  of  the  stem  of  Flax,  showing  its  bark,  wood,  and  pith. 

FIG.  353.  Piece  of  a stem  of  Soft  Maple,  of  a year  old,  cut  crosswise  and  lengthwise. 

FIG.  354.  A portion  of  the  same,  magnified. 

FIG.  355.  A small  piece  of  the  same,  taken  from  one  side,  reaching  from  the  bark  to  the 
pith,  and  highly  magnified  : a,  a small  bit  of  the  pith  ; b,  spiral  ducts  of  what  is  called  the 
medullary  sheath ; c,  the  wood  ; d,  d,  dotted  ducts  in  the  wood  j e,  e,  annular  ducts ; f,  the  liber 
or  inner  bark  ; g , the  green  bark  ; h,  the  corky  layer  ; i,  the  skin,  or  epidermis  ; /,  one  of  the 
medullary  rays,  or  plates  of  silver-grain,  seen  on  the  cross-section. 


152  ANATOMY  OF  THE  [LESSON  25. 

ing  plates,  giving  a peculiar  appearance  to  Oak,  Maple,  and  other 
wood  with  large  medullary  rays. 

427.  The  Bark  covers  and  protects  the  wood.  At  first  it  is  all 
cellular,  like  the  pith ; but  soon  some  slender  woody  fibres,  called 
bast-cells  (Fig.  342),  generally  appear  in  it,  next  the  wood,  forming 

The  Liber,  or  Fibrous  Bark,  the  inner  bark  ; to  which  belongs  the 
fine  fibrous  bast  or  bass  of  Basswood,  and  the  tough  and  slender  fibres 
of  flax  and  hemp,  which  are  spun  and  woven,  or  made  into  cordage. 
In  the  Birch  and  Beech  the  inner  bark  has  few  if  any  bast-cells  in 
its  composition. 

The  Cellular  or  Outer  Bark  consists  of  cellular  tissue  only.  It  is 
distinguished  into  two  parts,  an  inner  and  an  outer,  viz. : — 

The  Green  Bark,  or  Green  Layer,  which  consists  of  tender  cells, 
containing  the  same  green  matter  as  the  leaves,  and  serving  the 
same  purpose.  In  the  course  of  the  first  season,  in  woody  stems,  this 
becomes  covered  with 

The  Corky  Layer,  so  named  because  it  is  the  same  substance  as 
cork  ; common  cork  being  the  thick  corky  layer  of  the  bark  of  the 
Cork-Oak,  of  Spain.  It  is  this  which  gives  to  the  stems  or  twigs  of 
shrubs  and  trees  the  aspect  and  the  color  peculiar  to  each ; namely, 
light  gray  in  the  Ash,  purple  in  the  Red  Maple,  red  in  several  Dog- 
woods, &c.  Lastly, 

The  Epidermis,  or  skin  of  the  plant,  consisting  of  a layer  of  thick- 
sided empty  cells,  covers  the  whole. 

428.  Growth  of  the  Stem  year  after  year.  So  much  for  an  exogenous 
stem  only  one  year  old-  The  stems  of  herbs  perish  at  the  end  of  the 
season.  But  those  of  shrubs  and  trees  make  a new  growth  every 
year.  It  is  from  their  mode  of  growth  in  diameter  that  they  take  the 
name  of  exogenous,  i.  e.  outside-growing.  The  second  year,  such  a 
stem  forms  a second  layer  of  wood  outside  of  the  first ; the  third  year, 
another  outside  of  that ; and  so  on,  as  long  as  the  tree  lives.  So  that 
the  trunk  of  an  exogenous  tree,  when  cut  off  at  the  base,  exhibits  as 
many  concentric  rings  of  wood  as  it  is  years  old.  Over  twelve  hun- 
dred layers  have  actually  been  counted  on  the  stump  of  an  aged  tree, 
such  as  the  Giant  Cedar  or  Redwood  of  California ; and  there  are 
doubtless  some  trees  now  standing  in  various  parts  of  the  world  which 
were  already  in  existence  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 

429.  As  to  the  bark,  the  green  layer  seldom  grows  much  after  the 
first  season.  Sometimes  the  corky  layer  grows  and  forms  new 
layers,  inside  of  the  old,  for  a good  many  years,  as  in  the  Cork-Oak, 


LESSON  25.] 


EXOGENOUS  STEM. 


153 


the  Sweet  Gum-tree,  and  the  White  and  the  Paper  Birch.  But  it 
all  dies  after  a while ; and  the  continual  enlargement  of  the  wood 
within  finally  stretches  it  more  than  it  can  bear,  and  sooner  or  later 
cracks  and  rends  it,  while  the  weather  acts  powerfully  upon  its 
surface ; so  the  older  bark  perishes  and  falls  away  piecemeal  year 
by  year. 

430.  But  the  inner  bark,  or  liber,  does  make  a new  growth  an- 
nually, as  long  as  the  tree  lives,  inside  of  that  formed  the  year  before, 
and  next  the  surface  of  the  wood.  More  commonly  the  liber  occurs 
in  the  form  of  thin  layers,  which  may  be  distinctly  counted,  as  in 
Basswood : but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  After  the  outer  bark 
is  destroyed,  the  older  and  dead  layers  of  the  inner  bark  are  also 
exposed  to  the  weather,  are  riven  or  split  into  fragments,  and  fall 
away  in  succession.  In  many  trees  the  bark  acquires  a considerable 
thickness  on  old  trunks,  although  all  except  the  innermost  portion  is 
dead ; in  others  it  falls  off  more  rapidly ; in  the  stems  of  Honey- 
suckles and  Grape-vines,  the  bark  all  separates  and  hangs  in  loose 
shreds  when  only  a year  or  two  old. 

431.  Sap-W00d.  In  the  wood,  on  the  contrary,  — owing  to  its 
growing  on  the  outside  alone,  — the  older  layers  are  quietly  buried 
under  the  newer  ones,  and  protected  by  them  from  all  disturbance. 
All  the  wood  of  the  young  sapling  may  be  alive,  and  all  its  cells 
or  woody  tubes  active  in  carrying  up  the  sap  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves.  It  is  all  Sap-wood  or  Alburnum , as  young  and  fresh  wood 
is  called.  But  the  older  layers,  removed  a step  farther  every  year 
from  the  region  of  growth,  — or  rather  the  zone  of  growth  every 
year  removed  a step  farther  from  them,  — soon  cease  to  bear  much, 
if  any,  part  in  the  circulation  of  the  tree,  and  probably  have  long 
before  ceased  to  be  alive.  Sooner  or  later,  according  to  the  kipd  of 
tree,  they  are  turned  into 

432.  Heart-WOOd,  which  we  know  is  drier,  harder,  more  solid,  and 
much  more  durable  as  timber,  than  sap-wood.  It  is  generally  of  a 
different  color,  and  it  exhibits  in  different  species  the  hue  peculiar 
to  each,  such  as  reddish  in  Red-Cedar,  brown  in  Black-Walnut, 
black  in  Ebony,  &c.  The  change  of  sap-wood  into  heart-wood  re- 
sults from  the  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  wood-cells  by  the  depo- 
sition of  hard  matter,  lining  the  tubes  and  diminishing  their  calibre ; 
and  by  the  deposition  of  a vegetable  coloring-matter  peculiar  to  each 
species. 

433.  The  heart-wood,  being  no  longer  a living  part,  may  decay, 


154 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  STEM 


[lesson  25. 


and  often  does  so,  without  the  least  injury  to  the  tree,  except  by  im- 
pairing the  strength  of  the  trunk,  and  so  rendering  it  more  liable  to 
be  overthrown. 

434.  Tile  Living  Paris  Of  a Tree,  of  the  exogenous  kind,  are  only 
these : first,  the  rootlets  at  one  extremity ; second,  the  buds  and 
leaves  of  the  season  at  the  other ; and  third,  a zone  consisting  of 
the  newest  wood  and  the  newest  bark,  connecting  the  rootlets  with 
the  buds  or  leaves,  however  widely  separated  these  may  be,  — in 
the  largest  trees  from  two  to  four  hundred  feet  apart.  And  these 
parts  of  the  tree  are  all  renewed  every  year.  No  wonder,  there- 
fore, that  trees  may  live  so  long,  since  they  annually  reproduce 
everything  that  is  essential  to  their  life  and  growth,  and  since  only 
a very  small  part  of  their  bulk  is  alive  at  once.  The  tree  sur- 
vives, but  nothing  now  living  has  existed  long.  In  it,  as  elsewhere, 
life  is  a transitory  thing,  ever  abandoning  the  old , and  displaying 
itself  afresh  in  the  new. 

435.  Cambium-Layer.  The  new  growth  in  the  stem,  by  which  it 
increases  in  diameter  year  after  year,  is  confined  to  a narrow  line 
between  the  wood  and  the  inner  bark.  Cambium  is  the  old  name 
for  the  mucilage  which  is  so  abundant  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood  in  spring.  It  was  supposed  to  be  poured  out  there,  and  that 
the  bark  really  separated  from  the  wood  at  this  time.  This  is  not 
the  case.  The  newest  bark  and  wood  are  still  united  by  a delicate 
tissue  of  young  and  forming  cells,  — called  the  Cambium-layer , — 
loaded  with  a rich  mucilaginous  sap,  and  so  tender  that  in  spring 
the  bark  may  be  raised  from  the  wood  by  the  slightest  force. 
Here,  nourished  by  this  rich  mucilage,  new  cells  are  rapidly  form- 
ing by  division  (387  -390) ; the  inner  ones  are  added  to  the  wood, 
and  the  outer  to  the  bark,  so  producing  the  annual  layers  of  the 
two,  which  are  ever  renewing  the  life  of  the  trunk. 

436.  At  the  same  time  new  rootlets,  growing  in  a similar  way,  are 
extending  the  roots  beneath ; and  new  shoots,  charged  with  new  buds, 
annually  develop  fresh  crops  of  leaves  in  the  air  above.  Only, 
while  the  additions  to  the  wood  and  bark  remain  as  a permanent 
portion  of  the  tree,  or  until  destroyed  by  decay,  the  foliage  is  tem- 
porary, the  crop  of  leaves  being  annually  thrown  off  after  they  have 
served  their  purpose. 

437.  Structure  of  the  Leaf.  Leaves  also  consist  both  of  a woody 
and  a cellular  part  (135).  The  woody  part  is  the  framework  of  ribs 
and  veins,  which  have  already  been  described  in  full  (136-147). 


LESSON  25.] 


AND  LEAVES. 


155 


They  serve  not  only  to  strengthen  the  leaf,  but  also  to  bring  in  the 
ascending  sap,  and  to  distribute  it  by  the  veinlets  throughout  every 
part.  The  cellular  portion  is  the  green  pulp,  and  is  nearly  the  same 
as  the  green  layer  of  the  bark.  So  that  the  leaf  may  properly 
enough  be  regarded  as  a sort  of  expansion  of  the  fibrous  and  green 
layers  of  the  bark.  It  has  of  course  no  corky  layer  ; but  the  whole 
is  covered  by  a transparent  skin  or  epidermis , resembling  that  of 
the  stem. 

438.  The  green  pulp  consists  of  cells  of  various  forms,  usually 
loosely  arranged,  so  as  to  leave  many  irregular  spaces,  or  air-pas- 
sages, communicating  with  each  other  throughout  the  whole  interior 
of  the  leaf  (Fig.  356).  The  green  color  is  owing  to  a peculiar 
green  matter  lying  loose  in  the  cells,  in  form  of  minute  grains, 
named  Chlorophyll  (i.  e.  the  green  of 
leaves).  It  is  this  substance,  seen 
through  the  transparent  walls  of  the 
cells  where  it  is  accumulated,  which 
gives  the  common  green  hue  to  vege- 
tation, and  especially  to  foliage. 

439.  The  green  pulp  in  most  leaves 
forms  two  principal  layers ; an  upper 
one,  facing  the  sky,  and  an  under  one, 
facing  the  ground.  The  upper  one  is 
always  deeper  green  in  color  than  the  lower.  This  is  partly  owing, 
perhaps,  to  a greater  amount  of  chlorophyll  in  the  upper  cells,  but 
mainly  to  the  more  compact  arrangement  of  these  cells.  As  is  seen 
in  Fig.  356  and  357,  the  cells  of  the  upper  side  are  oblong  or  cylin- 
drical, and  stand  endwise  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  usually  close  to- 
gether, leaving  hardly  any  vacant  spaces.  Those  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  leaf  are  apt  to  be  irregular  in  shape,  most  of  them  with  their 
longer  diameter  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  leaf,  and  are  very  loosely 
arranged,  leaving  many  and  wide  air-chambers.  The  green  color 
underneath  is  therefore  diluted  and  paler. 

440.  In  many  plants  which  grow  where  they  are  subject  to 
drought,  and  which  hold  their  leaves  during  the  dry  season  (the 
Oleander  for  example),  the  greater  part  of  the  thickness  of  the  leaf 
consists  of  layers  of  long  cells,  placed  endwise  and  very  much  com- 

FIG.  35G.  Section  through  the  thickness  of  a leaf  of  the  Star- Anise  (lllicium),  of  Florida, 
magnified.  The  upper  and  the  lower  layers  of  thiclc-walled  and  empty  cells  represent  the 
epidermis  or  skin.  All  those  between  are  cells  of  the  green  pulp,  containing  grains  of 
chlorophyll. 


156 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  LEAVES. 


[lesson  25. 


pacted,  so  as  to  expose  as  little  surface  as  possible  to  the  direct  action 
of  the  hot  sun.  On  the  other  hand,  the  leaves  of  marsh  plants,  and 
of  others  not  intended  to  survive  a drought,  have  their  cells  more 
loosely  arranged  throughout.  In  such  leaves  the  epidermis,  or  skin, 
is  made  of  only  one  layer  of  cells  ; while  in  the  Oleander,  and  the 
like,  it  consists  of  three  or  four  layers  of  hard  and  thick-walled  cells. 
In  all  this,  therefore,  we  plainly  see  an  arrangement  for  tempering 
the  action  of  direct  sunshine,  and  for  restraining  a too  copious  evap- 
oration, which  would  dry  up  and  destroy  the  tender  cells,  at  least 
when  moisture  is  not  abundantly  supplied  through  the  roots. 

441.  That  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf  alone  is  so  constructed  as  to 
bear  the  sunshine,  is  shown  by  what  happens  when  their  position  is 
reversed : then  the  leaf  soon  twists  on  its  stalk,  so  as  to  turn  again 
its  under  surface  away  from  the  light ; and  when  prevented  from 
doing  so,  it  perishes. 

442.  A large  part  of  the  moisture  which  the  roots  of  a growing 
plant  are  constantly  absorbing,  after  being  carried  up  through  the 
stem,  is  evaporated  from  the  leaves.  A Sunflower-plant,  a little 
over  three  feet  high,  and  with  between  five  and  six  thousand  square 
inches  of  surface  in  foliage,  &c.,  has  been  found  to  exhale  twenty  or 
thirty  ounces  (between  one  and  two  pints)  of  water  in  a day.  Some 
part  of  this,  no  doubt,  flies  off  through  the  walls  of  the  epidermis  or 
skin,  at  least  in  sunshine  and  dry  weather ; but  no  considerable  por- 
tion of  it.  The  very  object  of  this  skin  is  to  restrain  evaporation. 
The  greater  part  of  the  moisture  exhaled  escapes  from  the  leaf 
through  the 

443.  Stomates  or  Breathing-pores.  These  are  small  openings  through 
the  epidermis  into  the  air-chambers,  establishing  a direct  commu- 
nication between  the  whole  interior  of  the  leaf  and  the  external  air. 
Through  these  the  vapor  of  water  and  air  can  freely  escape,  or 
enter,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  aperture  is  guarded  by  a pair  of 
thin-walled  cells,  — resembling  those  of  the  green  pulp  within, — 
which  open  when  moist  so  as  to  allow  exhalation  to  go  on,  but 
promptly  close  when  dry,  so  as  to  arrest  it  before  the  interior  of  the 
leaf  is  injured  by  the  dryness. 

444.  Like  the  air-chambers,  the  breathing-pores  belong  mainly  to 
the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  In  the  White  Lily,  — where  they  are 
unusually  large,  and  easily  seen  by  a simple  microscope  of  mod- 
erate power,  — there  are  about  60,000  to  the  square  inch  on  the 
epidermis  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  only  about  3,000  in 


LESSON  26.] 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION. 


157 


the  same  space  of  the  upper  surface.  More  commonly  there  are  few 
or  none  on  the  upper  side ; direct  sunshine  evidently  being  unfavor- 
able to  their  operation.  Their  immense  numbers  make  up  for  their 
minuteness.  They  are  said  to  vary  from  less  than  1,000  to  170,000 
to  the  square  inch  of  surface.  In  the  Apple-tree,  where  they  are 
under  the  average  as  to  number,  there  are  about  24,000  to  the 
square  inch  of  the  lower  surface  ; so  that  each  leaf  has  not  far  from 
100,000  of  these  openings  or  mouths. 


LESSON  XXVI. 

THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION,  DOING  THE  WORK  OF  VEGETATION. 

445.  Being  now  acquainted  with  the  machinery  of  the  plant,  we 
naturally  proceed  to  inquire  what  the  use  of  it  is,  and  how  it  works. 

446.  It  has  already  been  stated,  in  the  first  of  these  Lessons  (7), 
that  the  great  work  of  plants  is  to  change  inorganic  into  organic 
matter  ; that  is,  to  take  portions  of  earth  and  air,  — of  mineral  mat- 
ter, — upon  which  animals  cannot  live  at  all,  and  to  convert  them 

FIG.  357.  Portion  of  a White-Lily  leaf,  cut  through  and  magnified,  showing  a section  of 
the  thickness,  and  also  a part  of  the  skin  of  the  lower  side,  with  some  breathing-pores. 

14 


158 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION. 


[lesson  26. 


into  something  upon  which  they  can  live,  namely,  into  food.  All 
the  food  of  all  animals  is  produced  by  plants.  Animals  live  upon 
vegetables ; and  vegetables  live  upon  earth  and  air,  principally 
upon  the  air. 

447.  Plants  feed  upon  Earth  and  Air.  This  is  evident  enough  from 
the  way  in  which  they  live.  Many  plants  will  flourish  in  pure  sand 
or  powdered  chalk,  or  on  the  bare  face  of  a rock  or  wall,  watered 
merely  with  rain-water.  And  almost  any  plant  may  be  made  to 
grow  from  the  seed  in  pure  sand,  and  increase  its  weight  many  times, 
even  if  it  will  not  come  to  perfection.  Many  naturally  live  suspended 
from  the  branches  of  trees  high  in  the  air,  and  nourished  by  it  alone, 
never  having  any  connection  with  the  soil  (81)  ; and  some  which 
naturally  grow  on  the  ground,  like  the  Live-for-ever  of  the  gardens, 

\ tdien  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and  hung  in  the  air  will  often  flourish 
the  whole  summer  long. 

448.  It  is  true  that  fast-growing  plants,  or  those  which  produce 
considerable  vegetable  matter  in  one  season,  — especially  in  such  a 
concentrated  form  as  to  be  useful  as  food  for  man  or  the  higher 
animals,  — will  come  to  maturity  only  in  an  enriched  soil.  But 
what  is  a rich  soil  ? One  which  contains  decomposing  vegetable 
matter,  or  some  decomposing  animal  matter ; that  is,  in  either  case, 
some  decomposing  organic  matter  formerly  produced  by  plants ; 
aided  by  this,  grain-bearing  and  other  important  vegetables  will 
grow  more  rapidly  and  vigorously,  and  make  a greater  amount  of 
nourishing  matter,  than  they  could  if  left  to  do  the  whole  work  at 
once  from  the  beginning.  So  that  in  these  cases  also  all  the  organic 
matter  was  made  by  plants,  and  made  out  of  earth  and  air. 

449.  Their  Chemical  Composition  shows  what  Plants  arc  made  of.  The 
soil  and  the  air  in  which  plants  live,  and  by  which  they  are  every- 
where surrounded,  supply  a variety  of  materials,  some  likely  to  be 
useful  to  the  plant,  others  not.  To  know  what  elements  the  plant 
makes  use  of,  we  must  first  know  of  what  its  fabric  and  its  products 
are  composed. 

450.  We  may  distinguish  two  sorts  of  materials  in  plants,  one  of 
which  is  absolutely  essential,  and  is  the  same  in  all  of  them ; the 
other  not  really  essential,  and  very  variable  in  different  plants,  or  in 
the  same  plant  under  different  circumstances.  The  former  is  the 
organic , the  latter,  the  inorganic  or  earthy  materials. 

451.  The  Earthy  or  Inorganic  Constituents.  If  we  burn  thoroughly  a 
leaf,  a piece  of  wood,  or  any  other  part  of  a vegetable,  almost  all  of 


LESSON  26.] 


ITS  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 


159 


it  is  dissipated  into  air.  But  a little  ashes  remain  : these  represent 
the  earthy  constituents  of  the  plant. 

452.  They  consist  of  some  potash  (or  soda  if  a marine  plant  was 
used),  some  silex  (the  same  as  flint),  and  probably  a little  lime , aU 
umine , or  magnesia , iron  or  manganese , sulphur  or  phosphorus , &c. 
Some  or  all  of  these  elements  may  be  detected  in  many  or  most 
plants.  But  they  make  no  part  of  their  real  fabric ; and  they  form 
only  from  one  or  two  to  nine  or  ten  parts  out  of  a hundred  of  any 
vegetable  substance.  The  ashes  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  In  fact,  they  consist,  principally,  of  such  materials  as 
happened  to  be  dissolved,  in  small  quantity,  in  the  water  which  was 
taken  up  by  the  roots  ; and  when  that  is  consumed  by  the  plant,  or 
flies  off  pure  (as  it  largely  does,  447)  by  exhalation,  the  earthy  mat- 
ter is  left  behind  in  the  cells,  — just  as  it  is  left  incrusting  the  sides 
of  a teakettle  in  which  much  hard  water  has  been  boiled.  As  is 
very  natural,  therefore,  we  find  more  earthy  matter  (i.  e.  more 
ashes)  in  the  leaves  than  in  any  other  part  (sometimes  as  much  as 
seven  per  cent,  when  the  wood  contains  only  two  per  cent)  ; because 
it  is  through  the  leaves  that  most  of  the  water  escapes  from  the  plant. 
These  earthy  constituents  are  often  useful  to  the  plant  (the  silex,  for 
instance,  increases  the  strength  of  the  Wheat-stalk),  or  are  useful  in 
the  plant’s  products  as  furnishing  needful  elements  in  the  food  of  man 
and  other  animals  ; but  they  are  not  necessary  to  vegetation,  which 
may  go  on  without  them.  The  really  essential  elements  are 

453.  The  Organic  Constituents.  As  has  just  been  remarked,  when 
we  burn  in  the  open  air  a piece  of  any  plant,  nearly  its  whole  bulk, 
and  from  88  to  more  than  99  parts  out  of  a hundred  by  weight  of  its 
substance,  disappear,  being  turned  into  air  and  vapor.  These  are 
the  organic  constituents  which  have  thus  been  consumed,  — the 
actual  materials  of  the  cells  and  the  whole  real  fabric  of  the  plant. 
And  we  may  state  that,  in  burning,  it  has  been  decomposed  into  ex- 
actly the  same  kinds  of  air,  and  the  vapor  of  water,  that  the  plant 
used  in  its  making.  The  burning  has  merely  undone  the  work  of 
vegetation,  and  given  back  the  materials  to  the  air  just  in  the  state 
in  which  the  plant  took  them. 

454.  It  will  not  be  difficult  to  understand  what  the  organic  con- 
stituents, that  is,  what  the  real  materials,  of  the  plant  are,  and  how 
the  plant  obtains  them.  The  substance  of  which  vegetable  tissue, 
viz.  the  wall  of  the  cells,  is  made,  is  by  chemists  named  Cellulose.  It 
is  just  the  same  thing  in  composition  in  wood  and  in  soft  cellular  tis- 


160 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION. 


[LESSON  26. 


sue,  — in  the  tender  pot-herb  and  in  thj  oldest  tree.  It  is  composed 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  12  parts  of  the  former  to  10  of  each 
of  the  two  latter.  These,  accordingly,  are  necessary  materials  of 
vegetable  growth,  and  must  be  received  by  the  growing  plant. 

455.  The  Plant’s  Food  must  contain  these  three  elements  in  some 
shape  or  other.  Let  us  look  for  them  in  the  materials  which  the 
plant  is  constantly  taking  from  the  soil  and  the  air. 

456.  Water  is  the  substance  of  which  it  takes  in  vastly  more  than 
of  anything  else  : we  well  know  how  necessary  it  is  to  vegetable  life. 
The  plant  imbibes  water  by  the  roots,  which  are  specially  construct- 
ed for  taking  it  in,  as  a liquid  when  the  soil  is  wet,  and  probably 
also  in  the  form  of  vapor  when  the  soil  is  only  damp.  That  water 
in  the  form  of  vapor  is  absorbed  by  the  leaves  likewise,  when  the 
plant  needs  it,  is  evident  from  the  way  partly  wilted  leaves  revive 
and  freshen  when  sprinkled  or  placed  in  a moist  atmosphere.  Now 
water  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen , two  of  the  three  elements 
of  cellulose  or  plant-fabric.  Moreover,  the  hydrogen  and  the  oxygen 
exist  in  water  in  exactly  the  same  proportions  that  they  do  in  cellu- 
lose : so  it  is  clear  that  water  furnishes  these  two  elements. 

457.  We  inquire,  therefore,  after  the  third  element,  carbon.  This 
is  the  same  as  pure  charcoal.  Charcoal  is  the  carbon  of  a vegetable 
left  behind  after  charring,  that  is,  heating  it  out  of  contact  of  the  air 
until  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  are  driven  off.  The  charcoal  of  wood 
is  so  abundant  in  bulk  as  to  preserve  perfectly  the  shape  of  the  cells 
after  charring,  and  in  weight  it  amounts  to  about  half  that  of  the 
original  material.  Carbon  itself  is  a solid,  and  not  at  all  dissolved 
by  water : as  such,  therefore,  it  cannot  be  absorbed  into  the  plant, 
however  minute  the  particles  ; only  liquid  and  air  can  pass  through 
the  walls  of  the  cells  (402,  410).  It  must  therefore  come  to  the 
plant  in  some  combination,  and  in  a fluid  form.  The  only  substance 
within  the  plant’s  reach  containing  carbon  in  the  proper  state  is 

458.  Carbonic  Acid.  This  is  a gas,  and  one  of  the  components 
of  the  atmosphere,  everywhere  making  about  srVar  part  °f  bulk, 
— enough  for  the  food  of  plants,  but  not  enough  to  be  injurious  to 
animals.  For  when  mixed  in  any  considerable  proportion  with  the 
air  we  breathe,  carbonic  acid  is  very  poisonous.  The  air  produced 
by  burning  charcoal  is  carbonic  acid,  and  we  know  how  soon  burning 
charcoal  in  a close  room  will  destroy  life. 

459.  The  air  around  us  consists,  besides  this  minute  proportion 
of  carbonic  acid,  of  two  other  gases,  mixed  together,  viz.  oxygen 


LESSON  26.] 


ITS  FOOD. 


161 


and  nitrogen.  The  nitrogen  gas  does  not  support  animal  life : it  only 
dilutes  the  oxygen,  which  does.  It  is  the  oxygen  gas  alone  which 
renders  the  air  fit  for  breathing. 

460.  Carbonic  acid  consists  of  carbon  combined  with  oxygen.  In 
breathing,  animals  are  constantly  forming  carbonic  acid  gas  by  unit- 
ing carbon  from  their  bodies  with  oxygen  of  the  air ; they  inspire 
oxygen  into  their  lungs  ; they  breath  it  out  as  carbonic  acid.  So 
with  every  breath  animals  are  diminishing  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  — 
so  necessary  to  animal  life,  — and  are  increasing  its  carbonic  acid,  — 
so  hurtful  to  animal  life ; or  rather,  which  would  be  so  hurtful  if  it 
were  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  air.  The  reason  why  it  does  not 
increase  in  the  air  beyond  this  minute  proportion  is  that  plants  feed 
upon  it.  They  draw  their  whole  stock  of  carbon  from  the  carbonic 
acid  of  the  air. 

461.  Plants  take  it  in  by  their  leaves.  Every  current,  or  breeze 
that  stirs  the  foliage,  brings  to  every  leaf  a succession  of  fresh  atoms 
of  carbonic  acid,  which  it  absorbs  through  its  thousands  of  breathing- 
pores.  We  may  prove  this  very  easily,  by  putting  a small  plant  or 
a fresh  leafy  bough  into  a glass  globe,  exposed  to  sunshine,  and  hav- 
ing two  openings,  causing  air  mixed  with  a known  proportion  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  to  enter  by  one  opening,  slowly  traverse  the  foliage, 
and  pass  out  by  the  other  into  a vessel  proper  to  receive  it : now, 
examining  the  air  chemically,  it  will  be  found  to  have  less  carbonic 
acid  than  before.  A portion  has  been  taken  up  by  the  foliage. 

462.  Plants  also  take  it  in  by  their  roots,  some  probably  as  a gas, 
in  the  same  way  that  leaves  absorb  it,  and  much,  certainly,  dissolved 
in  the  water  which  the  rootlets  imbibe.  The  air  in  the  soil,  es- 
pecially in  a rich  soil,  contains  many  times  as  much  carbonic  acid 
as  an  equal  bulk  of  the  atmosphere  above.  Decomposing  vegetable 
matter  or  manures,  in  the  soil,  are  constantly  evolving  carbonic  acid, 
and  a large  part  of  it  remains  there,  in  the  pores  and  crevices,  among 
which  the  absorbing  rootlets  spread  and  ramify.  Besides,  as  this  gas 
is  dissolved  by  water  in  a moderate  degree,  every  rain-drop  that  falls 
from  the  clouds  to  the  ground  brings  with  it  a little  carbonic  acid, 
dissolving  or  washing  it  out  of  the  air  as  it  passes,  and  bringing  it 
down  to  the  roots  of  plants.  And  what  flows  off  into  the  streams 
and  ponds  serves  for  the  food  of  water-plants. 

463.  So  water  and  carbonic  acid,  taken  in  by  the  leaves,  or  taken 
in  by  the  roots  and  carried  up  to  the  leaves  as  crude  sap,  are  the 
general  food  of  plants,  — are  the  raw  materials  out  of  which  at  least 

14* 


162 


THE  PLANT  IN  ACTION, 


[lesson  26. 


the  fabric  and  a part  of  the  general  products  of  the  plant  are  made. 
Water  and  carbonic  acid  are  mineral  matters:  in  the  plant,  mainly 
in  the  foliage,  they  are  changed  into  organic  matters.  This  is 

464.  The  Plant’s  proper  Work,  Assimilation,  viz.  the  conversion  by  the 
vegetable  of  foreign,  dead,  mineral  matter  into  its  own  living  sub- 
stance, or  into  organic  matter  capable  of  becoming  living  substance. 
To  do  this  is,  as  we  have  said,  the  peculiar  office  of  the  plant.  How 
and  where  is  it  done  ? 

465.  It  is  done  in  the  green  parts  of  plants  alone , and  only  when 
these  ark  acted  upon  by  the  light  of  the  sun.  The  sun  in  some  way 
supplies  a power  which  enables  the  living  plant  to  originate  these 
peculiar  chemical  combinations,  — to  organize  matter  into  forms 
which  are  alone  capable  of  being  endowed  with  life.  The  proof  of 
this  proposition  is  simple  ; and  it  shows  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
simplest  way,  what  the  plant  does  with  the  water  and  carbonic  acid 
it  consumes.  Namely,  1st,  it  is  only  in  sunshine  or  bright  daylight 
that  the  green  parts  of  plants  give  out  oxygen  gas,  — then  they  do ; 
and  2d,  the  giving  out  of  this  oxygen  gas  is  just  what  is  required  to 
render  the  chemical  composition  of  water  and  carbonic  acid  the  same 
as  that  of  cellulose  (454),  that  is,  of  the  plant’s  fabric.  This  shows 
why  plants  spread  out  so  large  a surface  of  foliage. 

466.  In  plants  growing  or  placed  under  water  we  may  see  bubbles 
of  air  rising  from  the  foliage  ; we  may  collect  enough  of  this  air  to 
test  it  by  a candle’s  burning  brighter  in  it ; which  shows  it  to  be 
oxygen  gas.  Now  if  the  plant  is  making  cellulose  or  plant-substance, 
— that  is,  is  making  the  very  materials  of  its  fabric  and  growth,  as 
must  generally  be  the  case,  — all  this  oxygen  gas  given  off  by  the 
leaves  comes  from  the  decomposition  of  carbonic  acid  taken  in  by 
the  plant. 

467.  This  must  be  so,  because  cellulose  is  composed  of  10  parts  of 
oxygen  and  10  of  hydrogen  to  12  of  carbon  (454)  : here  the  first 
two  are  just  in  the  same  proportions  as  in  water,  which  consists  of 
one  part  of  oxygen  and  one  of  hydrogen,  — so  that  10  parts  of  water 
and  12  of  carbon  represent  one  of  cellulose  or  plant-fabric  ; and  to 
make  it  out  of  water  and  carbonic  acid,  the  latter  (which  is  composed 
of  carbon  and  oxygen)  has  only  to  give  up  all  its  oxygen.  In  other 
words,  the  plant,  in  its  foliage  under  sunshine,  decomposes  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  turns  the  carbon  together  with  water  into  cellulose,  at 
the  same  time  giving  the  oxygen  off  into  the  air. 

468.  And  we  can  readily  prove  that  it  is  so,  — namely,  that  plants 


LESSON  26.] 


PRODUCING  ORGANIC  MATTER. 


163 


do  decompose  carbonic  acid  in  their  leaves  and  give  out  its  oxygen, 
— by  the  experiment  mentioned  in  paragraph  461.  There  the 
leaves,  as  we  have  stated,  are  taking  in  carbonic  acid  gas.  We 
now  add,  that  they  are  giving  out  oxygen  gas  at  the  same  rate. 
The  air  as  it  comes  from  the  glass  globe  is  found  to  have  just  as 
much  more  oxygen  as  it  has  less  carbonic  acid  than  before  — just 
as  much  more  oxygen  as  would  be  required  to  turn  the  carbon  re- 
tained in  the  plant  back  into  carbonic  acid  again. 

469.  It  is  all  the  same  when  plants  — instead  of  making  fabric  at 
once,  that  is,  growing  — make  the  prepared  material,  and  store  it 
up  for  future  use.  The  principal  product  of  plants  for  this  purpose 
is  Starch , which  consists  of  minute  grains  of  organic  matter,  lying 
loose  in  the  cells.  Plants  often  accumulate  this,  perhaps  in  the  root, 
as  in  the  Turnip,  Carrot,  and  Dahlia  (Fig.  57  - 60)  ; or  in  subter- 
ranean stems  or  branches,  as  in  the  Potato  (Fig.  68),  and  many 
rootstocks;  or  in  the  bases  of  leaves,  as  in  the  Onion,  Lily  (Fig. 
73-75),  and  other  bulbs  ; or  in  fleshy  leaves  above  ground,  as  those 
of  the  Ice-Plant,  House-leek,  and  Century-Plant  (Fig.  82)  ; or  in 
the  whole  thickened  body,  as  in  many  Cactuses  (Fig.  76)  ; or  in 
the  seed  around  the  embryo,  as  in  Indian  Corn  (Fig.  38,  39)  and 
other  grain ; or  even  in  the  embryo  itself,  as  in  the  Horsechestnut 
(Fig.  23,  24),  Bean  (Fig.  16),  Pea  (Fig.  19),  &c.  In  all  these 
forms  this  is  a provision  for  future  growth,  either  of  the  plant 
itself  or  of  some  offset  from  it,  or  of  its  offspring,  as  it  springs 
from  the  seed.  Now  starch  is  to  cellulose  or  vegetable  fabric  just 
what  the  prepared  clay  is  to  the  potter’s  vessel,  — the  same  thing, 
only  requiring  to  be  shaped  and  consolidated.  It  has  exactly  the 
same  chemical  composition,  and  is  equally  made  of  carbon  and  the 
elements  of  water,  by  decomposing  the  same  amount  of  carbonic 
acid  and  giving  back  its  oxygen  to  the  air.  In  using  it  for  growth, 
the  plant  dissolves  it,  conveys  it  to  the  growing  parts,  and  consoli- 
dates it  into  fabric. 

470.  Sugar , another  principal  vegetable  product,  also  has  essen- 
tially the  same  chemical  composition,  and  may  be  formed  out  of  the 
same  common  food  of  plants,  with  the  same  result.  The  different 
kinds  of  sugar  (that  of  the  cane,  &c.  and  of  grapes)  consist  of  the 
same  three  materials  as  starch  and  cellulose,  only  with  a little  more 
water.  The  plant  generally  forms  the  sugar  out  of  starch,  changing 
one  into  the  other  with  great  ease ; starch  being  the  form  in  which 
prepared  material  is  stored  up,  and  sugar  that  in  which  it  is  ex- 


164 


THE  PLANT  PURIFYING  THE  AIR,  [LESSON  26. 


pended  or  transferred  from  one  part  of  the  plant  to  another.  In  the 
Sugar-cane  and  Indian  Corn,  starch  is  deposited  in  the  seed  ; in  ger- 
mination this  is  turned  into  sugar  for  the  plantlet  to  begin  its  growth 
with  ; the  growing  plant  produces  more,  and  deposits  some  as  starch 
in  the  stalk  ; just  before  blossoming,  this  is  changed  into  sugar  again, 
and  dissolved  in  the  sap,  to  form  and  feed  the  flowers  (which  cannot, 
like  the  leaves,  create  nourishment  for  themselves)  ; and  what  is  left 
is  deposited  in  the  seed  as  starch  again,  with  which  to  begin  the 
same  operation  in  the  next  generation. 

471.  We  might  enumerate  other  vegetable  products  of  this  class 
(such  as  oil,  acids,  jelly,  the  pulp  of  fruits,  &c.),  and  show'  how  they 
are  formed  out  of  the  carbonic  acid  and  water  wrhich  the  plant  takes 
in.  But  those  already  mentioned  are  sufficient.  In  producing  any 
of  them,  carbonic  acid  taken  from  the  air  is  decomposed,  its  carbon 
retained,  and  its  oxygen  given  back  to  the  air.  That  is  to  say, 

472.  Plants  purify  the  Air  for  Animals,  by  taking  away  the  carbonic 
acid  injurious  to  them,  continually  poured  into  it  by  their  breathing, 
as  well  as  by  the  burning  of  fuel  and  by  decay,  and  restoring  in  its 
place  an  equal  bulk  of  life-sustaining  oxygen  (460).  And  by  the 
same  operation,  combining  this  carbon  with  the  elements  of  water, 
&c.,  and  elaborating  them  into  organic  matter,  — especially  into 
starch,  sugar,  oil,  and  the  like,  — 

473.  Plants  produce  all  the  Food  and  Fabric  of  Animals.  The  herbiv- 
orous animals  feed  directly  upon  vegetables ; and  the  carnivorous 
feed  upon  the  herbivorous.  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  originate 
any  organic  matter.  They  take  it  all  ready-made  from  plants,  — 
altering  the  form  and  qualities  more  or  less,  and  at  length  destroy- 
ing or  decomposing  it. 

474.  Starch,  sugar,  and  oil,  for  example,  form  a large  part  of  the 
food  of  herbivorous  animals  and  of  man.  When  digested,  they  enter 
into  the  blood ; any  surplus  may  be  stored  up  for  a time  in  the  form 
of  fat,  being  changed  a little  in  its  nature ; while  the  rest  (and  finally 
the  wdiole)  is  decomposed  into  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  exhaled 
from  the  lungs  in  respiration  ; — in  other  words,  is  given  back  to  the 
air  by  the  animal  as  the  very  same  materials  which  the  plant  takes 
from  the  air  as  its  food  (463) ; — is  given  back  to  the  air  in  the  same 
form  that  it  wrnuld  have  been  if  the  vegetable  matter  had  been  left 
to  decay  where  it  grew,  or  if  it  had  been  set  on  fire  and  burned  ; — 
and  with  the  same  result  too  as  to  the  heat,  the  heat  in  this  case 
producing  and  maintaining  the  proper  temperature  of  the  animal. 


LESSON  26.]  AND  PRODUCING  THE  FOOD  OF  ANIMALS.  165 

475.  But  starch,  sugar,  and  the  like,  do  not  make  any  part  of  the 
flesh  or  fabric  of  animals.  And  that  for  the  obvious  reason,  that  they 
consist  of  only  the  three  elements  carbon , hydrogen , and  oxygen; 
whereas  the  flesh  of  animals  has  nitrogen  as  well  as  these  three  ele- 
ments in  its  composition.  The  materials  of  the  animal  body,  called 
Fibrine  in  the  flesh  or  muscles,  Gelatine  in  the  sinews  and  bones, 
Caseine  in  the  curd  of  milk,  &c.,  are  all  forms  of  one  and  the  same 
substance,  composed  of  carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and  nitrogen.  As 
nitrogen  is  a large  constituent  of  the  atmosphere,  and  animals  are 
taking  it  into  their  lungs  with  every  breath  they  draw,  we  might 
suppose  that  they  take  this  element  of  their  frame  directly  from  the 
air.  But  they  do  not.  Even  this  is  furnished  by  vegetables,  and 
animals  receive  it  ready-made  in  their  food.  And  this  brings  us  to 
consider  still  another  and  most  important  vegetable  product,  of  a 
different  class  from  the  rest  (omitted  till  now,  for  the  sake  of  greater 
simplicity) ; namely,  what  is  called 

47 6.  Proteine.  This  name  bas  been  given  to  it  by  chemists,  be- 
cause it  occurs  under  such  a protean  variety  of  forms.  The  Gluten 
of  wheat  and  the  Legumine  of  beans  and  other  leguminous  plants 
may  be  taken  to  represent  it.  It  occurs  in  all  plants,  at  least  in 
young  and  growing  parts.  It  does  not  make  any  portion  of  their 
tissue,  but  is  contained  in  all  living  cells,  as  a thin  jelly,  mingled 
with  the  sap  or  juice,  or  as  a delicate  mucilaginous  lining.  In  fact, 
it  is  formed  earlier  than  the  cell- wall  itself,  and  the  latter  is  moulded 
on  it,  as  it  were  ; so  it  is  also  called  Protoplasm.  It  disappears  from 
common  cells  as  they  grow  old,  being  transferred  onward  to  new  or 
forming  parts,  where  it  plays  a very  active  part  in  growth.  Mixed 
with  starch,  &c.,  it  is  accumulated  in  considerable  quantity  in  wheat, 
beans,  and  other  grains  and  seeds,  especially  those  which  are  most 
nutritious  as  food.  It  is  the  proteine  which  makes  them  so  nutritious. 
Taken  by  animals  as  food,  it  forms  their  flesh  and  sinews,  and  the 
animal  part  of  their  bones,  without  much  change ; for  it  has  the  same 
composition, — is  just  the  same  thing,  indeed,  in  some  slightly  different 
forms.  To  produce  it,  the  plant  employs,  in  addition  to  the  carbonic 
acid  and  water  already  mentioned  as  its  general  food,  some  ammo- 
nia ; which  is  a compound  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  Ammonia 
(which  is  the  same  thing  as  hartshorn)  is  constantly  escaping 
into  the  air  in  small  quantities  from  all  decomposing  vegetable 
and  animal  substances.  Besides,  it  is  produced  in  every  thunder- 
storm. Every  flash  of  lightning  causes  some  to  be  made  (in  the 


166 


PLANT-LIFE. 


[lesson  27. 


form  of  nitrate  of  ammonia)  out  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  the 
vapor  of  water.  The  reason  why  it  never  accumulates  in  the  air 
so  as  to  be  perceptible  is,  that  it  is  extremely  soluble  in  water,  as 
are  all  its  compounds.  So  it  is  washed  out  of  the  atmosphere  by  the 
rain  as  fast  as  it  is  made  or  rises  into  it,  and  is  brought  down  to  the 
roots  of  plants,  which  take  it  in  freely.  When  assimilated  in  the 
leaves  along  with  carbon  and  water,  proteine  is  formed,  the  very 
substance  of  the  flesh  of  animals.  So  all  flesh  is  vegetable  matter 
in  its  origin. 

477.  Lven  the  earthy  matter  of  the  bones,  and  the  iron  and  other 
mineral  matters  in  the  blood  of  animals,  are  derived  from  the  plants 
they  feed  upon,  with  hardly  an  exception.  These  are  furnished  by 
the  earthy  or  mineral  constituents  of  plants  (452),  and  are  merely 
accumulated  in  the  animal  frame. 

478.  Animals,  therefore,  depend  absolutely  upon  vegetables  for 
their  being.  The  great  object  for  which  the  All-wise  Creator  estab- 
lished the  vegetable  kingdom  evidently  is,  that  plants  might  stand  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  between  the  mineral  and  the  animal  crea- 
tions, and  organize  portions  of  the  former  for  the  sustenance  of 
the  latter. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

PLANT-LIFE. 

479.  Life  is  known  to  us  only  by  its  effects.  We  cannot  tell 
what  it  is  ; but  we  notice  some  things  which  it  does.  One  peculi- 
arity of  living  things,  which  has  been  illustrated  in  the  last  Lesson, 
is  their  power  of  transforming  matter  into  new  forms,  and  thereby 
making  products  never  produced  in  any  other  way.  Life  is  also 
manifested  by 

480.  Motion,  that  is,  by  self-caused  movements.  Living  things 
move  ; those  not  living  are  moved.  Animals,  living  as  they  do 
upon  organized  food,  — which  is  not  found  everywhere, — must 
needs  have  the  power  of  going  after  it,  of  collecting  it,  or  at  least  of 
taking  it  in ; which  requires  them  to  make  spontaneous  movements. 
But  plants,  with  their  wide-spread  surface  (34,  131)  always  in  con- 


LESSON  27.] 


CIRCULATION  IN  CELLS. 


1G7 


tact  with  the  earth  and  air  on  which  they  feed,  — the  latter  and  the 
most  important  of  these  everywhere  just  the  same,  — have  no  need 
of  locomotion,  and  so  are  generally  fixed  fast  to  the  spot  where 
they  grow. 

481.  Yet  many  plants  move  their  parts  freely,  sometimes  when 
there  is  no  occasion  for  it  that  we  can  understand,  and  sometimes 
accomplishing  by  it  some  useful  end.  The  sudden  closing  of  the 
leaflets  of  the  Sensitive  Plant,  and  the  dropping  of  its  leafstalk, 
when  jarred,  also  the  sudden  starting  forwards  of  the  stamens  of  the 
Barberry  at  the  touch,  are  familiar  examples.  Such  cases  seem  at 
first  view  so  strange,  and  so  different  from  what  we  expect  of  a plant, 
that  these  plants  are  generally  imagined  to  be  endowed  with  a pe- 
culiar faculty,  denied  to  common  vegetables.  But  a closer  exam- 
ination will  show  that  plants  generally  share  in  this  faculty;  that 
similar  movements  may  be  detected  in  them  all,  only  — like  those 
of  the  hands  of  a clock,  or  of  the  shadow  of  a sun-dial  — they  are 
too  slow  for  the  motion  to  be  directly  seen. 

482.  It  is  perfectly  evident,  also,  that  growth  requires  motion ; 
that  there  is  always  an  internal  activity  in  living  plants  as  wrell  as 
in  animals,  — a power  exerted  which  causes  their  fluids  to  move  or 
circulate,  and  carries  materials  from  one  part  to  another.  Some 
movements  are  mechanical ; but  even  these  are  generally  directed 
or  controlled  by  the  plant.  Others  must  be  as  truly  self-caused  as 
those  of  animals  are.  Let  us  glance  at  some  of  the  principal  sorts, 
and  see  what  light  they  throw  upon  vegetable  life. 

483.  Circulation  in  Cells.  From  what  we  know  of  the  anatomy  of 
plants,  it  is  clear  that  they  have  no  general  circulation  (like  that  of 
all  animals  except  the  lowest),  through  a system  of  vessels  opening 
into  each  other  (402,  410).  But  in  plants  each  living  cell  carries 
on  a circulation  of  its  own,  at  least  when  young  and  active.  This 
may  be  beautifully  seen  in  the  transparent  stems  of  Chara  and  many 
other  water-plants,  and  in  the  leaves  of  the  Fresh-water  Tape-Grass 
(Yallisneria),  under  a good  microscope.  Here  the  sap  circulates, 
often  quite  briskly  in  appearance,  (but  the  motion  is  magnified  as 
well  as  the  objects,)  in  a steady  stream,  just  beneath  the  wall, 
around  each  cell,  passing  up  one  side,  across  the  end,  down  the 
other,  and  so  round  to  complete  the  circuit,  carrying  with  it  small 
particles,  or  the  larger  green  grains,  which  make  the  current  more 
visible.  This  circulation  may  also  be  observed  in  hairs,  particularly 
those  on  flowers,  such  as  the  jointed  hairs  of  Spiderwort,  looking 


1C8 


PLANT-LIFE. 


[lesson  27. 


under  the  glass  like  strings  of  blue  beads,  each  bead  being  a cell. 
But  here  a microscope  magnifying  six  or  eight  hundred  times  in 
diameter  is  needed  to  see  the  current  distinctly. 

484.  The  movement  belongs  to  the,  protoplasm  (476),  or  jelly-like 
matter  under  the  cell-wall.  As  this  substance  has  just  the  same 
composition  as  the  flesh  of  animals,  it  is  not  so  strange  that  it  should 
exhibit  such  animal-like  characters.  In  the  simplest  water-plants, 
of  the  Sea-weed  family,  the  body  which  answers  to  the  seed  is  at 
first  only  a rounded  little  mass  of  protoplasm.  When  these  bodies 
escape  from  the  mother  plant,  they  often  swim  about  freely  in  the 
water  in  various  directions,  by  a truly  spontaneous  motion,  when  they 
closely  resemble  animalcules,  and  are  often  mistaken  for  them.  After 
enjoying  this  active  life  for  several  hours,  they  come  to  rest,  form 
a covering  of  cellulose,  and  therefore  become  true  vegetable  cells, 
fix  themselves  to  some  support,  germinate,  and  grow  into  the 
perfect  plant. 

485.  Absorption,  Conveyance  of  the  Sap,  &c.  Although  contained  in 
cells  with  closed  walls,  nevertheless  the  fluids  taken  in  by  the  roots 
are  carried  up  through  the  stem  to  the  leaves  even  of  the  topmost 
bough  of  the  tallest  tree.  And  the  sap,  after  its  assimilation  by  the 
leaves,  is  carried  down  in  the  bark  or  the  cambium-layer,  and  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  plant,  or  else  is  conveyed  to  the  points  where 
growth  is  taking  place,  or  is  accumulated  in  roots,  stems,  or  wherever 
a deposit  is  being  stored  up  for  future  use  (71,  104,  128,  469). 

486.  That  the  rise  of  the  sap  is  pretty  rapid  in  a leafy  and  growing 
plant,  on  a dry  summer’s  day,  is  evident  from  the  amount  of  water  it 
is  continually  losing  by  exhalation  from  the  foliage  (447)  ; — a loss 
which  must  all  the  while  be  supplied  from  the  roots,  or  else  the 
leaves  would  dry  up  and  die  ; as  they  do  so  promptly  when  sepa- 
rated from  the  stem,  or  when  the  stem  is  cut  off  from  the  roots. 
Of  course  they  do  not  then  lose  moisture  any  faster  than  they 
did  before  the  separation  ; only  the  supply  is  no  longer  kept 
up  from  below. 

487.  The  rise  of  the  sap  into  the  leaves  apparently  is  to  a great 
degree  the  result  of  a mechanical  process,  which  has  been  called  En- 
dosmose.  It  acts  in  this  way.  Whenever  two  fluids  of  different 
density  are  separated  by  a membrane,  whether  of  dead  or  of  living 
substance,  or  are  separated  by  any  porous  partition,  a flow  takes 
place  through  the  partition,  mainly  towards  the  heavier  fluid,  until 
that  is  brought  to  the  same  density  as  the  other.  A familiar  illus- 


LESSON  27.] 


CONVEYANCE  OF  THE  SAP. 


169 


tration  is  seen  when  we  place  powdered  sugar  upon  strawberries, 
and  slightly  moisten  them  : the  dissolving  sugar  rnakes  a solution 
stronger  than  the  juice  in  the  cells  of  the  fruit ; so  this  is  gradually 
drawn  out.  Also  when  pulpy  fruits  are  boiled  in  a strong  sirup ; as 
soon  as  the  sirup  becomes  denser  than  the  juice  in  the  fruit,  the 
latter  begins  to  flow  out  and  the  fruit  begins  to  shrivel.  But  when 
shrivelled  fruits  are  placed  in  weak  sirup,  or  in  water,  they  become 
plump,  because  the  flow  then  sets  inwards,  the  juice  in  the  cells  being 
denser  than  the  water  outside.  Now  the  cells  of  the  living  plant 
contain  organic  matter,  in  the  form  of  mucilage,  protoplasm,  some- 
times sugar,  &c. ; and  this  particularly  abounds  in  young  and 
growing  parts,  such  as  the  tips  of  roots  (Fig.  56),  which,  as  is  well 
known,  are  the  principal  agents  in  absorbing  moisture  from  the 
ground.  The  contents  of  their  cells  being  therefore  always  much 
denser  than  the  moisture  outside  (which  is  water  containing  a little 
carbonic  acid,  &c.,  and  a very  minute  quantity  of  earthy  matter), 
this  moisture  is  constantly  drawn  into  the  root.  What  makes  it 
ascend  to  the  leaves  ? 

488.  To  answer  this  question,  we  must  look  to  the  leaves,  and 
consider  what  is  going  on  there.  For  (however  it  may  be  in  the 
spring  before  the  leaves  are  out),  in  a leafy  plant  or  tree  the  sap  is 
not  forced  up  from  below,  but  is  drawn  up  from  above.  Water  large- 
ly evaporates  from  the  leaves  (447)  ; it  flies  off  into  the  air  as  vapor, 
leaving  behind  all  the  earthy  and  the  organic  matters,  — these  not 
being  volatile  ; — the  sap  in  the  cells  of  the  leaf  therefore  becomes 
denser,  and  so  draws  upon  the  more  watery  contents  of  the  cells  of 
the  stalk,  these  upon  those  of  the  stem  below,  and  so  on,  from  cell  to 
cell  dowrn  to  the  root,  causing  a flow  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves, 
which  begins  in  the  latter,  — just  as  a wind  begins  in  the  direction 
towards  which  it  blows.  Somewhat  similarly,  elaborated  sap  is 
drawn  into  buds  or  any  growing  parts,  where  it  is  consolidated 
into  fabric,  or  is  conveyed  into  tubers,  roots,  seeds,  and  the  like, 
in  which  it  is  condensed  into  starch  and  stored  up  for  future  use 
(74,  103,  &c.). 

489.  So  in  absorbing  moisture  by  the  roots,  and  in  conveying 
the  sap  or  the  juices  from  cell  to  cell  and  from  one  part  to  another, 
the  plant  appears  to  make  use  of  a physical  or  inorganic  force ; but 
it  manages  and  directs  this  as  the  purposes  of  the  vegetable  econ- 
omy demand.  Now,  when  the  proper  materials  are  brought  to  the 
growing  parts,  growth  takes  place ; and  in  growth  the  plant  moves 

15 


170 


PLANT-LIFE. 


[lesson  27. 


the  particles  of  matter,  arranges  them,  and  shapes  the  fabric  in  a 
manner  which  we  cannot  at  all  explain  by  any  mechanical  laws. 
The  organs  are  not  shaped  by  any  external  forces  ; they  shape 
themselves,  and  take  such  forms  and  positions  as  the  nature  of 
each  part,  or  the  kind  of  plant,  requires. 

490.  Special  Movements.  Besides  growing,  and  quite  independent 
of  it,  plants  not  only  assume  particular  positions,  but  move  or  bend 
one  part  upon  another  to  do  so.  Almost  every  species  does  this,  as 
well  as  what  are  called  sensitive  plants.  In  springing  from  the  seed, 
the  radicle  or  stem  of  the  embryo,  if  not  in  the  proper  position 
already,  bends  itself  round  so  as  to  direct  its  root-end  downwards, 
and  the  stem-end  or  plumule  upwards.  It  does  the  same  when 
covered  so  deeply  by  the  soil  that  no  light  can  affect  it,  or  when 
growing  in  a perfectly  dark  cellar.  But  after  reaching  the  light, 
the  stem  bends  towards  that,  as  every  one  knowTs ; and  bends 
towards  the  stronger  light,  when  the  two  sides  are  unequally  ex- 
posed to  the  sun.  It  is  now  known  that  the  shoot  is  bent  by  the 
shortening  of  the  cells  on  the  more  illuminated  side  ; for  if  we  split 
the  bending  shoot  in  two,  that  side  curves  over  still  more,  while  the 
opposite  side  inclines  to  fly  back.  But  how  the  light  causes  the 
cells  to  shorten  on  that  side,  we  can  no  more  explain,  than  we  can 
tell  how  the  will,  acting  through  the  nerves,  causes  the  contraction 
of  the  fibres  of  the  muscles  by  w'hich  a man  bends  his  arm.  We 
are  sure  that  the  bending  of  the  shoot  has  nothing  to  do  with 
growth,  because  it  takes  place  after  a shoot  is  grown  ; and  the  del- 
icate stem  of  a young  seedling  will  bend  a thousand  times  faster 
than  it  grows.  Also  because  it  is  yellow  light  that  most  favors 
growth  and  the  formation  of  vegetable  fabric,  while  the  blue  and 
violet  rays  produce  the  bending.  Leaves  also  move,  even  more 
freely  than  stems.  They  constantly  present  their  upper  face  to  the 
light ; and  when  turned  upside  down,  they  twist  on  their  stalks,  or 
curve  round  to  recover  their  original  position. 

491.  Many  leaves  make  other  and  quicker  movements,  as  is  seen 
in  what  has  been  called  the  sleep  of  plants.  That  is,  they  change  their 
position  as  night  draws  on,  and  in  different  ways,  according  to  the 
species,  — the  Locust  and  Wood-Sorrel  turning  down  their  leaflets, 
the  Honey  Locust  raising  them  upright,  the  Sensitive  Plant  turning 
them  forwards  one  over  another ; and  the  next  morning  they  resume 
their  diurnal  position.  One  fact,  among  others,  showing  that  the 
changes  are  not  caused,  by  the  light,  but  by  some  power  in  the  plant 


LESSON  27.] 


MOVEMENTS. 


171 


itself,  is  this.  The  leaves  of  the  Sensitive  Plant  close  long  before 
sunset ; but  they  expand  again  before  sunrise,  under  much  less  light 
than  they  had  when  they  closed.  Besides,  in  this  as  in  many  other 
plants,  the  leaves  take  the  nocturnal  position  when  brushed  or  jarred, 
— in  the  common  Sensitive  Plant  very  suddenly,  in  other  sorts 
less  quickly,  in  the  Honey  Locust  a little  too  slowly  for  us  to  see 
the  motion.  The  way  in  which  blossoms  open  and  close,  some  when 
the  light  increases  and  others  when  it  diminishes,  illustrates  the  same 
thing. 

492.  The  stamens  of  the  Barberry,  when  touched  at  the  base  on 
the  inner  side,  — as  by  an  insect  seeking  for  honey,  or  by  the  point 
of  a pin,  — make  a sudden  jerk  forward,  and  in  the  process  commonly 
throw  some  pollen  upon  the  stigma,  wdiich  stands  a little  above  their 
reach.  In  many  blossoms,  the  stamens  just  at  the  proper  season 
slowly  approach  the  stigma,  and  after  shedding  their  pollen  recede 
or  wither  away.  In  such  cases  we  plainly  perceive  that  a useful 
end  is  subserved.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  Venus’s  Fly-trap 
of  North  Carolina,  growing  where  it  is  always  sure  of  all  the  food  a 
plant  can  need,  yet  provided  with  an  apparatus  for  catching  insects, 
and  for  no  other  special  use  that  we  know  of,  and  actually  captur- 
ing them  expertly  by  a sudden  motion,  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed (126,  Fig.  81)  ? Or  of  the  leaflets  of  the  Desmodium 
gyrans  of  the  East  Indies,  or  one  of  the  petals  of  some  Orchideous 
flowers,  moving  spontaneously  in  a wide  sweep,  falling  and  rising  by 
turns  every  few  seconds  for  nearly  the  whole  day  long  ? We  can 
only  say,  that  plants  are  alive,  no  less  than  animals,  and  that  it  is  a 
characteristic  of  living  things  to  move. 


172  CRYPTOGAMOUS  OR  FLOWERLESS  PLANTS.  [LESSON  27. 


***  Cryptogamous  or  Flowerless  Plants. 

493.  In  all  the  foregoing  Lessons,  we  have  had  what  may  be 
called  plants  of  the  higher  classes  alone  in  view.  There  are  others, 
composing  the  lower  grades  of  vegetation,  to  which  some  allusion 
ought  to  be  made. 

494.  Of  this  sort  are  Ferns  or  Brakes,  Mosses,  Liverworts, 
Lichens,  Sea-weeds,  and  Fungi  or  Mushrooms.  They  are  all 
classed  together  under  the  name  of  Flowerless  Plants , or  Crypto- 
gamous Plants  ; the  former  epithet  referring  to  the  fact  that  they  do 
not  bear  real  blossoms  (with  stamens  and  pistils)  nor  seeds  (with  an 
embryo  ready-formed  within).  The  latter  name  means  “ hidden 
fructification,”  and  intimates  that  they  may  have  something  answer- 
ing to  stamens  and  pistils,  although  not  the  same ; and  this  is  now 
known  to  be  the  case  with  most  of  them. 

495.  Flowerless  plants  are  so  very  various,  and  so  peculiar  in  each 
family,  that  a volume  would  be  required  to  illustrate  them.  Curious 
and  attractive  as  they  are,  they  are  too  difficult  to  be  studied  botan- 
ically  by  the  beginner,  except  the  Ferns,  Club-Mosses,  and  Horse- 
tails. For  the  study  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  Mosses  (which  are 
more  difficult,  and  more  microscopic),  we  refer  the  student  at  once 
to  the  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States,  where 
the  species  of  this  country  ’ are  described  and  illustrated.  The 
structure  and  physiology  of  these  plants,  as  well  as  of  the  still 
lower  grades  of  Lichens,  Sea-weeds,  and  Fungi,  are  explained  in 
the  Botanical  Text-Book , and  in  other  similar  works.  When  the 
student  has  become  prepared  for  the  study,  nothing  can  be  more 
interesting  than  these  plants  of  the  lowest  orders. 


LESSON  28.] 


SPECIES  AND  KINDS. 


173 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

SPECIES  AND  KINDS. 

496.  Until  now,  we  have  been  considering  plants  as  to  their 
structure  and  their  mode  of  life.  We  have,  as  it  were,  been  read- 
ing the  biography  of  an  individual  plant,  following  it  from  the  tiny 
seedling  up  to  the  mature  and  fruit-bearing  herb  or  tree,  and  learning 
how  it  grows  and  what  it  does.  The  botanist  also  considers  plants 
as  to  their  relationships. 

497.  Plants  and  animals,  as  is  well  known,  have  two  great  pecu- 
liarities : 1st,  they  form  themselves  ; and  2d,  they  multiply  them- 
selves. They  reproduce  themselves  in  a continued  succession  of 

498.  Individuals  (3).  Mineral  things  occur  as  masses,  which  are 
divisible  into  smaller  and  still  smaller  ones  without  alteration  of 
their  properties  (391).  But  organic  things  (vegetables  and  ani- 
mals) exist  as  individual  beings.  Each  owes  its  existence  to  a 
parent,  and  produces  similar  individuals  in  its  turn.  So  each  indi- 
vidual is  a link  of  a chain ; and  to  this  chain  the  natural-historian 
applies  the  name  of 

499.  Species,  All  the  descendants  from  the  same  stock  therefore 
compose  one  species.  And  it  was  from  our  observing  that  the  sev- 
eral sorts  of  plants  or  animals  steadily  reproduce  themselves, — or,  in 
other  words,  keep  up  a succession  of  similar  individuals,  — that  the 
idea  of  species  originated.  So  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  the  Cre- 
ator established  a definite  number  of  species  at  the  beginning,  which 
have  continued  by  propagation,  each  after  its  kind. 

500.  There  are  few  species,  however,  in  which  man  has  actually 
observed  the  succession  for  many  generations.  It  could  seldom  be 
proved  that  all  the  White  Pine  trees  or  White  Oaks  of  any  forest 
came  from  the  same  stock.  But  observation  having  familiarized 
us  with  the  general  fact,  that  individuals  proceeding  from  the  same 
stock  are  essentially  alike,  we  infer  from  their  close  resemblance 
that  these  similar  individuals  belong  to  the  same  species.  That  is, 
we  infer  it  when  the  individuals  are  as  much  like  each  other  as  those 
are  which  we  know  to  have  sprung  from  the  same  stock. 

501.  We  do  not  infer  it  from  every  resemblance  ; for  there  is  the 
resemblance  of  kind,  — as  between  the  White  Oak  and  the  Red  Oak, 

15  * 


174 


SPECIES  AND  KINDS. 


[lesson  28. 


and  between  the  latter  and  the  Scarlet  Oak : these,  we  take  for 
granted,  have  not  originated  from  one  and  the  same  stock,  but  from 
three  separate  stocks.  Nor  do  we  deny  it  on  account  of  every 
difference  ; for  even  the  sheep  of  the  same  flock,  and  the  plants 
raised  from  peas  of  the  same  pod,  may  show  differences,  and  such 
differences  occasionally  get  to  be  very  striking.  When  they  are 
pretty  well  marked,  we  call  them 

Varieties.  The  White  Oak,  for  example,  presents  two  or  three 
varieties  in  the  shape  of  the  leaves,  although  they  may  be  all  alike 
upon  each  particular  tree.  The  question  often  arises,  practically, 
and  it  is  often  hard  to  answer,  whether  the  difference  in  a particular 
case  is  that  of  a variety,  or  is  specific.  If  the  former,  we  may 
commonly  prove  it  to  be  so  by  finding  such  intermediate  degrees 
of  difference  in  various  individuals  as  to  show  that  no  clear  line  of 
distinction  can  be  drawn  between  them ; or  else  by  observing  the 
variety  to  vary  back  again,  if  not  in  the  same  individual,  yet  in  its 
offspring.  Our  sorts  of  Apples,  Pears,  Potatoes,  and  the  like,  show 
us  that  differences  which  are  permanent  in  the  individual,  and  con- 
tinue unchanged  through  a long  series  of  generations  when  propa- 
gated by  division  (as  by  offsets,  cuttings,  grafts,  bulbs,  tubers,  &c.), 
are  not  likely  to  be  reproduced  by  seed.  Still  they  sometimes  are 
so  : and  such  varieties  are  called 

Races.  These  are  strongly  marked  varieties,  capable  of  being 
propagated  by  seed.  Our  different  sorts  of  Wheat,  Indian  Corn, 
Peas,  Radishes,  &c.,  are  familiar  examples : and  the  races  of  men 
offer  an  analogous  instance. 

502.  It  should  be  noted,  that  all  varieties  have  a tendency  to  be 
reproduced  by  seed,  just  as  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  parent  tend  to 
be  reproduced  in  the  offspring.  And  by  selecting  those  plants  which 
have  developed  or  inherited  any  desirable  peculiarity,  keeping  them 
from  mingling  with  their  less  promising  brethren,  and  selecting  again 
the  most  promising  plants  raised  from  their  seeds,  we  may  in  a few 
generations  render  almost  any  variety  transmissible  by  seed,  so  long 
as  we  take  good  care  of  it.  In  fact,  this  is  the  way  the  cultivated  or 
domesticated  races,  so  useful  to  man,  have  been  fixed  and  preserved. 
Races,  in  fact,  can  hardly,  if  at  all,  be  said  to  exist  independently  of 
man.  But  man  does  not  really  produce  them.  Such  peculiarities 
— often  surprising  enough  — now  and  then  originate,  we  know  not 
how  (the  plant  sports , as  the  gardeners  say)  ; they  are  only  pre- 
served, propagated,  and  generally  further  developed,  by  the  culti- 


LESSON  28.] 


CLASSIFICATION. 


1 1 5 

vator’s  skilful  care.  If  left  alone,  they  dwindle  and  perish,  or  else 
revert  to  the  original  form  of  the  species. 

503.  Botanists  variously  estimate  the  number  of  known  species 
of  plants  at  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  thousand.  About  2,350 
species  of  the  higher  classes  of  plants  grow  wild  in  the  Northern 
United  States.  So  that  the  vegetable  kingdom  exhibits  a very 
great  diversity.  Between  our  largest  and  highest-organized  trees, 
such  as  a Magnolia  or  an  Oak,  and  the  simplest  of  plants,  reduced 
to  a single  cell  or  sphere,  much  too  minute  to  be  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  how  wide  the  difference  ! Yet  the  extremes  are  con- 
nected by  intermediate  grades  of  every  sort,  so  as  to  leave  no  wide 
gap  at  any  place ; and  not  only  so,  but  every  grade,  from  the  most 
complex  to  the  most  simple,  is  exhibited  under  a wide  and  most 
beautiful  diversity  of  forms,  all  based  upon  the  one  plan  of  vegeta- 
tion which  we  have  been  studying,  and  so  connected  and  so  an- 
swering to  each  other  throughout  as  to  convince  the  thoughtful 
botanist  that  all  are  parts  of  one  system,  works  of  one  hand,  realiza- 
tions in  nature  of  the  conception  of  One  Mind.  We  perceive  this, 
also,  by  the  way  in  which  the  species  are  grouped  into 

504.  Kinds.  If  the  species,  when  arranged  according  to  their  re- 
semblances, were  found  to  differ  from  one  another  about  equally,  — 
that  is,  if  No.  1 differed  from  No.  2 just  as  much  as  No.  2 did  from 
No.  3,  and  No.  4 from  No.  5,  and  so  on  throughout,  — then,  with  all 
the  diversity  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  there  is  now,  there  would  yet 
be  no  foundation  in  nature  for  grouping  species  into  kinds.  Species 
and  kinds  would  mean  just  the  same  thing.  We  should  classify  them, 
no  doubt,  for  convenience,  but  our  classification  would  be  arbitrary. 
The  fact  is,  however,  that  species  resemble  each  other  in  very  un- 
equal degrees.  Some  species  are  almost  exactly  alike  in  their  whole 
structure,  and  differ  only  in  the  shape  or  proportion  of  their  parts ; 
these,  we  say,  belong  to  one  Genus.  Some,  again,  show  a more  gen- 
eral resemblance,  and  are  found  to  have  their  flowers  and  seeds  con- 
structed on  the  same  particular  plan,  but  with  important  differences 
in  the  details ; these  belong  to  the  same  Order  or  Family.  Then, 
taking  a wider  survey,  we  perceive  that  they  all  group  themselves 
under  a few  general  types  (or  patterns),  distinguishable  at  once  by 
their  flowers,  by  their  seeds  or  embryos,  by  the  character  of  the 
seedling  plant,  by  the  structure  of  their  stems  and  leaves,  and  by 
their  general  appearance  : these  great  groups  we  call  Classes. 
Finally,  we  distinguish  the  whole  into  two  great  types  or  grades ; 


176 


SPECIES  AND  KINDS. 


[LESSON  28. 


the  higher  grade  of  Flowering  plants,  exhibiting  the  full  plan  of 
vegetation,  and  the  lower  grade  of  Flowerless  plants,  in  which 
vegetation  is  so  simplified  that  at  length  the  only  likeness  between 
them  and  our  common  trees  or  Flowering  plants  is  that  they  are 
both  vegetables.  From  species,  then,  we  rise  first  to 

505.  Genera  (plural  of  Genus).  The  Rose  kind  or  genus,  the  Oak 
genus,  the  Chestnut  genus,  &c.,  are  familiar  illustrations.  Each 
genus  is  a group  of  nearly  related  species,  exhibiting  a particular 
plan.  All  the  Oaks  belong  to  one  genus,  the  Chestnuts  to  another, 
the  Beech  to  a third.  The  Apple,  Pear,  and  Crab  are  species  of  one 
genus,  the  Quince  represents  another,  the  various  species  of  Haw- 
thorn a third.  In  the  animal  kingdom  the  common  cat,  the  wild  cat, 
the  panther,  the  tiger,  the  leopard,  and  the  lion  are  species  of  the  cat 
kind  or  genus  ; while  the  dog,  the  jackal,  the  different  species  of  wolf, 
and  the  foxes,  compose  another  genus.  Some  genera  are  represented 
by  a vast  number  of  species,  others  by  few,  very  many  by  only  one 
known  species.  For  the  genus  may  be  as  perfectly  represented  in 
one  species  as  in  several,  although,  if  this  were  the  case  throughout, 
genera  and  species  would  of  course  be  identical  (504).  The  Beech 
genus  and  the  Chestnut  genus  would  be  just  as  distinct  from  the  Oak 
genus  even  if  but  one  Beech  and  one  Chestnut  were  known ; as  in- 
deed was  the  case  formerly. 

506.  Orders  or  Families  (the  two  names  are  used  for  the  same  thing 
in  botany)  are  groups  of  genera  that  resemble  each  other ; that  is, 
they  are  to  genera  what  genera  are  to  species.  As  familiar  illustra- 
tions, the  Oak,  Chestnut,  and  Beech  genera,  along  with  the  Hazel 
genus  and  the  Hornbeams,  all  belong  to  one  order,  viz.  the  Oak  Fam- 
ily ; the  Birches  and  the  Alders  make  another  family ; the  Poplars 
and  Willows,  another;  the  Walnuts  (with  the  Butternut)  and  the 
Hickories,  another.  The  Apple  genus,  the  Quince  and  the  Haw- 
thorns, along  with  the  Plums  and  Cherries  and  the  Peach,  the 
Raspberry,  with  the  Blackberry,  the  Strawberry,  the  Rose,  and  many 
other  genera,  belong  to  a large  order,  the  Rose  Family. 

507.  Tribes  and  Suborders,  This  leads  us  to  remark,  that  even  the 
genera  of  the  same  order  may  show  very  unequal  degrees  of  resem- 
blance. Some  may  be  very  closely  related  to  one  another,  and  at  the 
same  time  differ  strikingly  from  the  rest  in  certain  important  partic- 
ulars. In  the  Rose  Family,  for  example,  there  is  the  Rose  genus 
itself,  with  the  Raspberry  genus,  the  Strawberry,  the  Cinquefoil, 
&c.  near  it,  but  by  no  means  so  much  like  it  as  they  are  like  each 


LESSON  28.] 


ORDERS,  CLASSES,  ETC. 


177 


other : this  group,  therefore,  answers  to  what  is  called  a Tribe  ; and 
the  Rose  itself  stands  for  another  tribe.  But  we  further  observe 
that  the  Apple  genus,  the  Hawthorns,  the  Quince,  and  the  June- 
berry,  though  of  the  same  order,  and  nearly  related  among  them- 
selves, differ  yet  more  widely  from  the  Rose  and  its  nearest  relations; 
and  so,  on  the  other  hand,  do  the  Plum  and  Cherry,  the  Peach  and 
the  Almond.  So  this  great  Rose  Family,  or  Order,  is  composed  of 
three  groups,  of  a more  marked  character  than  tribes,  — groups 
which  might  naturally  be  taken  for  orders ; and  we  call  them  Sub- 
orders. But  students  will  understand  these  matters  best  after  a few 
lessons  in  studying  plants  in  a work  describing  the  kinds. 

508.  Classes.  These  are  great  assemblages  of  orders,  as  already 
explained  (515).  The  orders  of  Flowering  Plants  are  numerous, 
no  less  than  134  being  represented  in  the  Botany  of  the  Northern 
United  States  ; but  they  all  group  themselves  under  two  great 
classes.  One  class  comprises  all  that  have  seeds  with  a mono- 
cotyledonous  embryo  (32),  endogenous  stems  (423),  and  generally 
parallel-veined  leaves  (139)  ; the  other,  those  with  dicotyledonous 
embryo,  exogenous  stems,  and  netted-veined  leaves ; and  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  two  is  so  different  that  they  are  known  at  a glance. 

509.  Finally,  these  two  classes  together  compose  the  upper  Series 
or  grade  of  Flowering  or  Phcenogamous  Plants , which  have  their 
counterpart  in  the  lower  Series  of  Flowerless  or  Crgptogamous  Plants , 
— - composed  of  three  classes,  and  about  a dozen  orders. 

510.  The  universal  members  of  classification  are  Class,  Order, 
Genus,  Species,  always  standing  in  this  order.  When  there  are 
more,  they  take  their  places  as  in  the  following  schedule,  which 
comprises  all  that  are  generally  used  in  a natural  classification, 
proceeding  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  viz. : — 

Series, 

Class, 

Subclass, 

Order,  or  Family, 

Suborder, 

Tribe, 

Subtribe, 

Genus, 

Subgenus  or  Section, 
Species, 

Variety. 


178 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 


[lesson  29. 


LESSON  XXIX. 

BOTANICAL  NAMES  AND  CHARACTERS. 

511.  Plants  are  classified , — i.  e.  are  marshalled  under  their  re- 
spective classes,  orders,  tribes,  genera,  and  species,  — and  they  are 
characterized , — that  is,  their  principal  characteristics  or  distinguish- 
ing marks,  are  described  or  enumerated,  in  order  that, 

First,  their  resemblances  or  differences,  of  various  degrees,  may 
be  clearly  exhibited,  and  all  the  species  and  kinds  ranked  next  to 
those  they  are  most  related  to  ; — and 

Secondly,  that  students  may  readily  ascertain  the  botanical  names 
of  the  plants  they  meet  with,  and  learn  their  peculiarities,  properties, 
and  place  in  the  system. 

512.  It  is  in  the  latter  that  the  young  student  is  chiefly  interested. 
And  by  his  studies  in  this  regard  he  is  gradually  led  up  to  a higher 
point  of  view,  from  which  he  may  take  an  intelligent  survey  of  the 
whole  general  system  of  plants.  But  the  best  way  for  the  student 
to  learn  the  classification  of  plants  (or  Botany  as  a system),  is  to  use 
it,  in  finding  out  by  it  the  name  and  the  peculiarities  of  all  the  wild 
plants  he  meets  with. 

513.  Names.  The  botanical  name  of  a plant,  that  by  which  a 
botanist  designates  it,  is  the  name  of  its  genus  followed  by  that  of 
the  species.  The  name  of  the  genus  or  kind  is  like  the  family  name 
or  surname  of  a person,  as  Smith , or  Jones.  That  of  the  species 
answers  to  the  baptismal  name,  as  John , or  James.  Accordingly, 
the  White  Oak  is  called  botanically  Quercus  alba  ; the  first  word,  or 
Quercus , being  the  name  of  the  Oak  genus ; the  second,  alba , that 
of  this  particular  species.  And  the  Red  Oak  is  named  Quercus 
rubra ; the  Black-Jack  Oak,  Quercus  nigra ; and  so  on.  The  bo- 
tanical names  are  all  in  Latin  (or  are  Latinized),  this  being  the 
common  language  of  science  everywhere ; and  according  to  the 
usage  of  that  language,  and  of  most  others,  the  name  of  the  species 
comes  after  that  of  the  genus,  while  in  English  it  comes  before  it. 

514.  Generic  Names.  A plant,  then,  is  named  by  two  words.  The 
generic  name,  or  that  of  the  genus,  is  one  word,  and  a substantive. 
Commonly  it  is  the  old  classical  name,  when  the  genus  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ; as  Quercus  for  the  Oak,  Fagus  for  the 


LESSON  29.] 


BOTANICAL  NAMES. 


179 


Beech,  Corylus , the  Hazel,  and  the  like.  But  as  more  genera  be- 
came known,  botanists  had  new  names  to  make  or  borrow.  Many 
are  named  from  some  appearance  or  property  of  the  flowers,  leaves, 
or  other  parts  of  the  plant.  To  take  a few  examples  from  the  early 
pages  of  the  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States , — 
in  which  the  derivation  of  the  generic  names  is  explained.  The 
genus  Hepatica , p.  6,  comes  from  the  shape  of  the  leaf  resembling 
that  of  the  liver.  Myosurus , p.  10,  means  mouse-tail.  Delphin- 
ium, p.  12,  is  from  delphin,  a dolphin,  and  alludes  to  the  shape  of 
the  flower,  which  was  thought  to  resemble  the  classical  figures  of  the 
dolphin.  Zanthorhiza , p.  13,  is  from  two  Greek  words  meaning 
yellow-root,  the  common  name  of  the  plant.  Cimicifuga,  p.  14,  is 
formed  of  two  Latin  words,  meaning,  to  drive  away  bugs,  the  same 
as  its  common  name  of  Bugbane,  the  Siberian  species  being  used  to 
keep  away  such  vermin.  Sanguinaria,  p.  26,  is  named  from  the 
blood-like  color  of  its  juice. 

515.  Other  genera  are  dedicated  to  distinguished  botanists  or  pro- 
moters of  natural  science,  and  bear  their  names : such  are  Magnolia , 
p.  15,  which  commemorates  the  early  French  botanist,  Magnol,  and 
Jeffersonia,  p.  20,  named  after  President  Jefferson,  who  sent  the  first 
exploring  expedition  over  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Others  bear  the 
name  of  the  discoverer  of  the  plant  in  question  ; as,  Sarracenia,  p. 
23,  dedicated  to  Dr.  Sarrazin  of  Quebec,  who  was  one  of  the  first 
to  send  our  common  Pitcher-plant  to  the  botanists  of  Europe ; and 
Claytonia,  p.  65,  first  made  known  by  the  early  Virginian  botanist 
Clayton. 

516.  Specific  Names.  The  name  of  the  species  is  also  a single 
word,  appended  to  that  of  the  genus.  It  is  commonly  an  adjective, 
and  therefore  agrees  with  the  generic  name  in  case,  gender,  &c. 
Sometimes  it  relates  to  the  country  the  species  inhabits ; as,  Clay- 
tonia Virginica,  first  made  known  from  Virginia ; Sanguinaria 
Canadensis , from  Canada,  &c.  More  commonly  it  denotes  some 
obvious  or  characteristic  trait  of  the  species;  as,  for  example,  in 
Sarracenia,  our  northern  species  is  named  purpurea , from  the  pur- 
ple blossoms,  while  a more  southern  one  is  named  flava , because 
its  petals  are  yellow;  the  species  of  Jeffersonia  is  called  diphylla , 
meaning  two-leaved,  because  its  leaf  is  divided  into  two  leaflets. 
Some  species  are  named  after  the  discoverer,  or  in  compliment  to  a 
botanist  who  has  made  them  known  ; as,  Magnolia  Fraseri,  named 
after  the  botanist  Fraser,  one  of  the  first  to  find  this  species ; Ra- 


180 


BOTANICAL  NAMES  AND  CHARACTERS.  [LESSON  29. 


nunculus  Purshii , p.  7,  named  for  the  botanist  Pursh  ; and  Pulsa- 
tilla Nuttalliana , p.  4,  named  in  compliment  to  Mr.  Nuttall.  Such 
names  of  persons  are  of  course  written  with  a capital  initial  letter. 
Occasionally  some  old  substantive  name  is  used  for  the  species  ; as 
Magnolia  Umbrella,  p.  16,  and  Ranunculus  Flammula , p.  8.  These 
are  also  written  with  a capital  initial,  and  need  not  accord  with  the 
generic  name  in  gender,  &c. 

517.  The  name  of  a variety,  when  it  is  distinct  enough  to  require 
any,  is  made  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the  species,  and  is  written 
after  it ; as,  Ranunculus  Flammula,  variety  reptans,  p.  8 (i.  e.  the 
creeping  variety),  and  R.  abortivus,  variety  micranthus , p.  9,  or 
the  small-flowered  variety  of  this  species. 

518.  Names  Of  Groups.  The  names  of  tribes,  orders,  and  the  like, 
are  in  the  plural  number,  and  are  commonly  formed  by  prolonging 
the  name  of  a genus  of  the  group  taken  as  a representative  of  it. 
For  example,  the  order  of  which  the  Buttercup  or  Crowfoot  genus, 
Ranunculus , is  the  representative,  takes  from  it  the  name  of  Ranun- 
culacece  (Manual,  p.  2)  ; meaning  Plantce  Ranunculacece  when  writ- 
ten out  in  full,  that  is,  Ranunculaceous  Plants.  This  order  comprises 
several  tribes  ; one  of  which,  to  which  Ranunculus  itself  belongs, 
takes  the  name  of  Ranunculece  ; another,  to  which  the  genus  Clem- 
atis, or  the  Virgin’s-Bower,  belongs,  takes  accordingly  the  name  of 
Clematidece  ; and  so  on.  So  the  term  Rosacece  (meaning  Rosaceous 
plants)  is  the  name  of  the  order  of  which  the  Rose  {Rosa)  is  the 
well-known  representative  ; and  Rosece  is  the  name  of  the  particular 
tribe  of  it  which  comprises  the  Rose. 

519.  A few  orders  are  named  on  a somewhat  different  plan.  The 
great  order  Leguminosce,  for  instance  (Manual,  p.  88),  is  not  named 
after  any  genus  in  it ; but  the  fruit,  which  is  a legume  (356),  gives 
the  name  of  Leguminous  Plants.  So,  likewise,  the  order  Umbelliferce 
(Manual,  p.  148)  means  Umbelliferous  or  Umbel-bearing  Plants ; 
and  the  vast  order  Compositce  (Manual,  p.  177)  is  so  named  be- 
cause it  consists  of  plants  whose  blossoms  are  crowded  into  heads 
of  the  sort  which  were  called  “ compound  flowers  ” by  the  old 
botanists  (277). 

520.  Characters.  The  brief  description,  or  enumeration  in  scien- 
tific terms  of  the  principal  distinctive  marks  of  a species,  genus, 
order,  or  other  group,  as  given  in  botanical  works,  is  called  its 
Character.  Thus,  in  the  Manual,  already  referred  to,  on  the  first 
page,  the  character  of  the  first  great  series  is  given ; then  that  of 


LESSON  30.] 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


181 


the  first  class,  of  the  first  subclass,  and  of  a division  under  it  (p.  2). 
Then,  after  the  name  of  the  order,  follows  its  character  (the  ordinal 
character)  : under  the  name  of  each  genus  (as,  1.  Atragene , p.  3)  is 
added  the  generic  character,  or  description  of  what  essentially  dis- 
tinguishes it ; and  finally,  following  the  name  of  each  species,  is  the 
specific  character,  a succinct  enumeration  of  the  points  in  which  it 
mainly  differs  from  other  species  of  the  same  genus.  See,  for  illus- 
tration, Atragene  Americana , p.  3,  where  the  sentence  immediately 
following  the  names  is  intended  to  characterize  our  species  as  to  its 
difference  from  those  of  other  regions. 

521.  Under  the  next  genus,  Clematis  (p.  3),  and  generally  where 
we  have  several  species  of  a genus,  the  species  are  arranged  under 
sections , and  these  often  under  subsections , for  the  student’s  conven- 
ience in  analysis,  — the  character  or  description  of  a section  applying 
to  all  the  species  under  it,  and  therefore  not  having  to  be  repeated 
under  each  species.  But  these  details  are  best  understood  by 
practice,  in  the  actual  studying  of  plants  to  ascertain  their  name  and 
place.  And  to  this  the  student  is  now  ready  to  proceed. 


LESSON  XXX. 

HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 

522.  Having  explained,  in  the  two  preceding  Lessons,  the  general 
principles  of  Classification,  and  of  Botanical  Names,  we  may  now 
show,  by  a few  examples,  how  the  student  is  to  proceed  in  applying 
them,  and  how  the  name  and  the  place  in  the  system  of  an  unknown 
plant  are  to  be  ascertained. 

523.  We  suppose  the  student  to  be  provided  with  the  Manual 
of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States,  which  describes  all 
our  plants  known  to  grow  wild  this  side  of  the  Mississippi  River 
and  north  of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee.  And  also  to  have  a 
hand  magnifying -glass,  and,  if  possible,  a simple  microscope,  with 
mounted  glasses,  and  with  a stage,  holding  a glass  plate,  on  which 
small  flowers  or  their  parts  may  be  laid,  while  they  are  dissected 
under  the  microscope  with  the  points  of  needles  (mounted  in  han- 

16 


182 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[lesson  30. 


dies),  or  divided  by  a sharp  knife.  Such  a microscope  is  not  neces- 
sary, except  for  very  small  flowers  ; but  it  is  a great  convenience  at 
all  times,  and  is  indispensable  in  studying  the  more  difficult  sorts  of 
plants.* 

524.  To  express  clearly  the  distinctions  which  botanists  observe, 
and  which  furnish  the  best  marks  to  know  a plant  by,  requires  a good 
many  technical  terms,  or  words  used  with  a precise  meaning.  These, 
as  they  are  met  with,  the  student  should  look  out  in  the  Glossary 
(p.  103).  The  terms  in  common  use  are  not  so  numerous  as  they 
would  at  first  appear  to  be.  With  practice  they  will  soon  be- 
come so  familiar  as  to  give  very  little  trouble.  And  the  application 
of  botanical  descriptive  language  to  the  plants  themselves,  indicating 
all  their  varieties  of  form  and  structure,  is  an  excellent  discipline  for 
the  mind,  equal,  if  not  in  some  respects  superior,  to  that  of  learning 
a classical  language. 

525.  Analysis  Of  a Plant.  For  the  first  trial  we  may  as  well  take 
a Buttercup.  Some  species  or  other  may  be  found  in  blossom  at 
almost  any  part  of  the  season,  and,  except  in  early  spring,  the  fruit, 
more  or  less  matured,  may  be  gathered  with  the  flowers.  For  a 
full  knowledge  of  a plant  the  fruit  is  essential,  although  the  name 
may  generally  be  ascertained  without  it. 

526.  We  wish  to  refer  the  plant  first  to  its  proper  class  and  order, 
and  then  to  its  genus  and  species.  The  orders  are  so  numerous,  and 
so  generally  distinguishable  only  by  a combination  of  a considerable 
number  of  marks,  that  the  young  student  must  find  his  way  to  them 
by  means  of  an  Artificial  Key.  With  the  plant  in  hand,  let  the 
student  turn  to  page  xvii  of  the  introductory  part  of  the  Manual , 
on  which  this  artificial  key  to  the  natural  orders  commences. 

527.  It  opens  with  “ Series  I.  Ph^enogamous  or  Flowering 

Plants  — to  which,  as  it  has  real  flowers  and  produces  seeds, 

our  plant  plainly  enough  belongs.  Under  this  are  two  classes. 

528.  We  read  the  characters  (520)  or  distinctive  marks  of  Class  I. 
Dicotyledonous  or  Exogenous  Plants.  This  class,  we  per- 
ceive, is  known  by  its  stem,  by  its  leaves,  by  its  embryo,  and  by  the 
number  of  parts  in  the  plan  of  the  flower.  The  easiest  of  these  for 
the  young  student  to  determine  it  by,  is  that  of  the  leaves,  which 
in  this  class  are  netted-veined  (140).  So  they  plainly  are  in  the 


* A very  grood  instrument  of  the  kind,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  furnished  hy 
Messrs.  J.  & W.  Grunow,  opticians,  of  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  for  ten  dollars. 


LESSON  30.] 


THE  BUTTERCUP. 


183 


Buttercup ; the  plan  of  the  veins  is  just  as  in  Fig.  50,  only  the  leaf 
is  very  deeply  cut,  in  most  species.  The  character  of  the  stem  is  not 
quite  so  easy  to  make  out  in  an  herb  as  it  is  in  a shrub  or  tree.  In 
these  we  see  at  a glance  what  an  exogenous  stem  is  (424-426) : 
besides,  the  stem  of  the  Buttercup  is  generally  hollow,  and  so  the 
pith  is  partly  broken  up.  Still,  if  we  make  a slice  near  the  base, 
and  view  it  under  a magnifying-glass,  we  shall  find  that,  although 
herbaceous,  it  is  formed  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  Maple  (Fig. 
353)  or  any  common  wood.  It  is  just  as  in  Fig.  352,  only  there  is 
not  so  much  wood  in  it ; but  what  there  is  evidently  forms  a ring 
between  a pith  in  the  centre  and  an  outside  bark ; so  it  is  exogenous. 
The  embryo,  in  the  seed  of 
the  Buttercup,  is  too  minute 
for  the  student  to  find  without 
considerable  practice  in  dis- 
secting seeds  : so  that  charac- 
ter must  be  passed  by.  But 
the  five  leaves  of  the  calyx 
and  the  five  petals  plainly 
show  that  the  flower  is  con- 
structed on  the  plan  of  five.  All  this  agrees  with  Class  I. ; so  we 
may  be  sure  our  plant  belongs  to  that  class. 

529.  Under  this  class  are  two  subclasses.  Subclass  I.  Angio 
sperm^e,  has  regularly  closed  pistils,  the  ovary  forming  a case  which 
includes  the  ovules  or  young 
seeds.  To  get  a good  view 
of  the  parts,  let  us  with  a 
sharp  knife  cut  a flower  di- 
rectly through  the  middle  from 
top  to  bottom  ; as  in  Fig.  358.  359  300  36 1 

We  see  it  has  a cluster  of  many  pistils,  heaped  on  an  oblong  recep- 
tacle : some  are  left  whole ; some  are  divided.  One  pistil,  with  the 
wall  of  the  ovary  cut  away  on  one  side,  is  shown,  more  magnified,  in 
Fig.  359,  bringing  to  view  the  single  ovule  it  contains.  The  other 
subclass  (mentioned  on  page  xxiii)  has  an  open  scale  for  a pistil, 
bearing  naked  ovules,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  264  and  Fig.  266. 

FIG.  358.  A flower  of  a Buttercup  (Ranunculus  bulbosus)  cut  through  from  top  to  bot- 
tom, and  enlarged.  359.  A pistil  taken  from  it,  and  more  magnified  ; its  ovary  cut  through 
lengthwise,  showing  the  ovule.  360.  One  of  its  pistils  when  ripened  into  a fruit  ( achenium ). 
361.  The  same,  cut  through,  to  show  the  seed  in  it. 


184  HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS.  [LESSON  30. 

Our  plant  clearly  belongs  to  the  first  subclass.  The  second  subclass 
comprises  only  Pines,  Spruces,  Cedars,  and  the  like. 

530.  We  have  no  less  than  110  orders  under  this  subclass.  To 
aid  the  unpractised  student  in  finding  his  way  among  them,  they  are 
ranked  under  three  artificial  divisions  ; the  Polypetalous,  the  Mono- 
petalous  (page  xx),  and  the  Apetalous  (page  xxi).  The  flowers 
of  the  last  are  destitute  of  any  corolla ; those  of  the  second  have  the 
petals  more  or  less  united  into  a tube  or  cup  ; the  first  alone  has  a 
corolla  of  separate  petals.  Our  plant  accordingly  belongs  to  the 
Polypetalous  division. 

531.  This  division  comprises  fifty-four  orders  in  the  Northern 
United  States.  The  Artificial  Key  analyzes  them  by  certain  easy 
characters,  arranged,  as  we  perceive,  under  a series  of  headings, 
which  lead  by  successive  steps  down  to  the  order.  The  first  is 
marked  A,  and  has  its  counterparts  B and  C on  the  next  page.  It 
relates  to  the  number  of  the  stamens.  In  our  plant  the  stamens  are 
more  numerous  than  the  petals  : so  it  falls  under  the  head  A. 

532.  The  head  under  this,  marked  1,  — with  its  counterpart  on 
the  next  page,  marked  2,  — relates  to  the  calyx,  whether  free  (269), 
or  coherent  with  the  ovary  (271).  If  we  have  any  doubt  about  this, 
the  best  way  is  to  split  the  blossom  through  from  top  to  bottom,  just 
as  in  Fig.  358.  Here  the  calyx  is  entirely  and  widely  separate 
from  the  pistils  ; so  we  refer  our  plant  to  the  head  No.  1. 

533.  The  next  step  under  this  is  marked  with  a star  ( * ),  and  has 
its  alternatives  on  the  next  page,  marked  one  with  two  stars,  the 
other  with  three.  It  directs  us  to  examine  the  stamens,  and  see 
whether  they  grow  directly  on  the  receptacle  (that  is,  are  hypogy- 
nous,  269),  or  are  united  with  the  base  of  the  petals,  or  else  are 
borne  on  the  calyx.  The  first  is  plainly  the  case  in  the  present  in- 
stance ; so  we  read  on  down  the  page. 

534  The  next  line  reads,  “ Pistils  numerous,  but  cohering  over 
each  other  on  a long  receptacle.”  In  our  plant  they  are  numerous, 
but  are  entirely  separate,  only  crowded  together.  We  pass  therefore 
to  the  next  line,  which  reads,  “ Pistils  several,  immersed  in  the  upper 
surface  of  a top-shaped  receptacle  ” ; which  by  no  means  accords 
with  our  plant  So  we  proceed  to  the  third  line,  which  does  accord, 
viz. : “ Pistils  more  than  one,  wholly  separate  and  distinct.”  The 
six  lines  which  follow  this,  and  which  are  set  further  in,  rank  under 
it.  The  first  two  give  an  alternative,  relating  to  the  length  of  the 
filaments.  Our  plant  falls  under  the  second,  the  “ filaments  ” being 


LESSON  30.] 


THE  BUTTERCUP. 


185 


“ longer  than  the  anther.”  Then  follows  an  alternative,  in  several 
particulars,  beginning  with  the  anther.  As  our  plant  has  two-celled 
anthers  (294)  and  perfect  flowers,  and  is  an  herb,  we  follow  the 
second  line.  Under  that  is  another  alternative,  beginning  with  the 
word  “ petals  ” : these  as  well  as  the  sepals  are  deciduous  soon  after 
blossoming.  So  we  are  confined  to  the  upper  of  the  two  lines,  and 
this  brings  us  out  to  the  word  Ranunculaceje,  p.  2. 

535.  This  is  the  name  of  the  order  to  which  our  plant  must  be- 
long ; and  the  figure,  2,  refers  to  the  page  of  the  Manual  where  that 
order  is  described. 

536.  We  turn  to  that  page,  and  read  over  the  general  description 
of  the  order  Ranunculacese,  especially  the  portion  at  the  beginning 
printed  in  italics , which  comprises  the  most  important  points.  Its 
agreement  with  our  plant  shows  that  the  key  has  opened  the  way  to 
a right  result.  Under  this  order  we  find  21  genera  described.  A 
Synopsis  gives  their  characters  in  brief,  and  also  those  of  the  five 
tribes  they  belong  to.  We  compare  the  characters  of  these  tribes 
in  succession  with  our  plant.  The  petals,  being  present  and  conspic- 
uous, exclude  it  from  the  first  and  the  second  tribes  ; but  with  the 
third  tribe,  Ranuncule^e,  it  exactly  accords,  having  the  sepals 
overlapping  each  other  in  the  bud,  conspicuous  petals  with  a little 
scale  at  their  base  inside,  and  one-seeded  pistils,  which  form  achenia 
or  seed-like  fruits  (348).  Under  it  are  two  genera,  Ranunculus  and 
Myosurus.  With  the  first  our  plant  agrees  in  its  calyx,  in  its  head 
of  pistils  or  fruits,  and  in  its  erect  seed  (Fig.  361).  This  genus  is 
No.  8.  We  turn  over  to  where  it  is  fully  described,  under  that 
number,  on  page  7,  and  read  the  generic  character  or  description, 
which  makes  it  certain  that  our  plant  belongs  to  the  genus  Ranun- 
culus, the  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup  genus. 

537.  We  have  now  only  to  find  out  to  which  of  the  17  species  of 
Ranunculus  our  plant  belongs.  The  color  of  the  petals  and  the  little 
scale  at  the  base,  as  well  as  other  marks,  exclude  it  from  the  first 
section  (§  1),  and  lead  us  to  § 2.  Under  this  are  two  subdivisions 
designated  by  stars.  The  first  has  the  “ Achenia  smooth”  and  takes 
in  all  the  section  except  the  last  two  species ; our  Buttercup  has 
smooth  fruits,  and  belongs  here.  Then  we  come  to  a further  sub- 
division, marked  with  daggers  ; to  the  first  (-)— ) our  plant  does  not 
belong,  not  being  aquatic , nor  are  the  leaves  filiformly  dissected , 
i.  e.  cut  into  fine  threads.  It  falls  into  the  counterpart  subdivision, 
marked  -t—  -f— , being  terrestrial , and  having  a perennial  root. 

16* 


186 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[LESSON  30. 


538.  Under  this  are  13  species  (from  No.  3 to  No.  15)  arranged 
under  three  further  subdivisions.  The  first,  marked  ++,  having 
the  leaves  all  undivided , does  not  answer.  The  second,  marked 

++,  will  not  do,  having  the  root-leaves  undivided.  The  third, 
++  ++  ++J  answers  to  our  plant.  Under  it  is  yet  a further  sub- 
division (marked  a and  V)  : the  first  (a)  does  not  answer,  having 
the  petals  pale  and  not  exceeding  the  calyx ; the  other  (b)  does 
answer  well.  This  comprises  four  species,  to  one  of  which  our  plant 
must  belong,  — a comparison  will  soon  determine  which.  To  save 
labor  in  the  comparison,  some  of  the  easiest  and  most  certain  marks 
are  printed  in  italics  in  the  description.  We  read  the  italics  first,  find 
that  numbers  12,  13,  and  14  are  all  excluded,  are  brought  therefore 
to  No.  15,  ascertain  that  the  whole  description  agrees  very  well,  and 
conclude  that  our  plant  is  the  Bulbous  Crowfoot  or  Buttercup , called 
by  botanists  Ranunculus  bulbosus. 

539.  This  species  flowers  in  spring  and  the  early  part  of  summer, 
and  was  introduced  from  Europe  into  Eastern  New  England  and 
New  York,  but  is  rarely  met  with  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 
Later  in  the  season,  however,  another  and  taller  species,  otherwise 
much  like  it,  is  everywhere  common  in  meadows  and  low  pastures, 
the  Ranunculus  acris , which  answers  just  as  well  for  this  illustra- 
tion. There  is  also  the  wild  Creeping  Crowfoot,  Ranunculus  repens 
(No.  13),  very  common  in  most  places;  at  the  opening  of  spring  the 
Early  Crowfoot,  R.  fascicularis,  makes  its  appearance  ; and  several 
others  occur  in  the  course  of  the  season.  Having  ascertained  the 
genus  from  one  species,  the  student  cannot  fail  to  recognize  it  again 
at  a glance,  in  other  species,  whenever  they  are  met  with. 

540.  Returning  to  the  species  we  have  been  occupied  with,  viz.  R. 
bulbosus , we  note  the  letter  L.  following  the  name.  This  stands  for 
Linnaeus,  the  author  who  first  described  the  plant  under  this  name. 
Then  come  the  common  or  English  names ; then  the  specific  char- 
acter ; after  this,  the  station  where  the  plant  grows,  and  the  part  of 
the  country  in  which  it  occurs.  This  is  followed  by  the  time  of  blos- 
soming (from  May  to  July) ; and  then  by  some  general  descriptive 
remarks.  The  expression  “ Nat.  from  Eu.  ” means  that  the  species 
is  a naturalized  emigrant  from  Europe,  and  is  not  original  to  this 
country.  These  and  other  abbreviations  used  in  botanical  descrip- 
tions are  explained  in  the  Preface  to  the  Manual  of  Botany. 


LESSON  31.] 


THE  COMMON  FLAX. 


187 


LESSON  XXXI. 

HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS  I FURTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

541.  Beginners  should  not  be  discouraged  by  the  slow  progress 
they  will  necessarily  make  in  the  first  trials.  By  perseverance 
the  various  difficulties  will  soon  be  overcome,  and  each  successful 
analysis  will  facilitate  the  next.  Not  only  will  a second  species  of 
the  same  genus  be  known  at  a glance,  but  commonly  a second  genus 
of  the  same  order  will  be  recognized  as  a relative  at  sight,  by  the 
family  likeness.  Or  if  the  family  likeness  is  not  detected  at  the  first 
view,  it  will  be  seen  as  the  characters  of  the  plant  are  studied  out. 

542.  We  will  help  the  student  along  the  way  by  one  or  two  more 
examples.  We  will  take  in  the  first  place  the  common  cultivated 
Flax,  which  will  serve  our  present  purpose,  although  not  truly  a 
wild  plant  in  this  country.  Turning,  as  before,  to  the  Artificial  Key, 
on  p.  xvii  of  the  Introduction  to  the  Manual , the  student  asks  first, 
Is  the  plant  Ph^enogamous  or  Flowering?  Of 
course  it  is ; the  blossom,  with  its  stamens  and  pistils, 
answers  that  question.  Next,  To  which  of  the  two 
classes  does  it  belong  ? If  we  judge  by  the  stem,  we 
ask  whether  it  is  exogenous  or  endogenous  (422-424). 

A section  of  the  stem,  considerably  magnified,  given  on 
page  151  we  may  here  repeat  (Fig.  362) ; it  plainly 
shows  a ring  of  wood  between  a central  pith  and  a bark.  It  is 
therefore  exogenous.  Moreover,  the  leaves  are  netted-veined,  though 
the  veins  are  not  conspicuous.  If  we  judge  from  the  embryo,  there 
will  be  little  difficulty  in  dissecting  a flax-seed,  and  in  finding  that 
almost  the  whole  interior  is  occupied  by  an  embryo  with  two  cotyle- 
dons, much  like  that  of  an  apple-seed  (Fig.  11,  12)  ; so  it  is  dico- 
tyledonous. If  we  turn  to  the  parts  of  the  blossom,  we  perceive 
they  are  five  throughout  (Fig.  363,  365),  a number  which  occurs 
in  the  first  class  only.  All  these  marks,  or  any  of  them  which  the 
student  is  able  readily  to  verify,  show  that  the  plant  belongs  to 
Class  I.  Dicotyledonous  or  Exogenous  Plants. 

543.  To  which  subclass,  is  the  next  inquiry.  The  ovary  in  the 


FIG.  362.  Section  of  the  stem  of  Flax,  magnified. 


188 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[lesson  31. 


centre  of  the  flower  is  of  the  ordinary  sort,  enclosing  the  ovules  : so 
the  plant  belongs  to  Subclass  I.  Angiospermje. 

544.  To  get  a good  idea  of  the  general  plan  of  the  flower,  let  the 
student  cut  it  through  the  middle  lengthwise,  as  in  Fig.  364,  and 


also  take  a slice  across  a flower-bud,  like  Fig.  365.  We  see  that 
the  blossom  is  regularly  constructed  upon  the  number  five.  It  has 
a calyx  of  five  sepals,  a corolla  of  five  petals,  five  stamens,  and  five 
styles,  with  their  ovaries  all  combined  into  one  compound  ovary. 

We  note,  also,  that  the  several  parts  of  the  blos- 
som are  all  free  and  unconnected,  — the  leaves 
of  the  calyx,  the  petals,  and  the  stamens  all  ris- 
ing separately  one  after  another  from  the  re- 
ceptacle underneath  the  ovary:  that  is,  these 
parts  are  hypogynous  (269). 

545.  Continuing  now  our  analysis  by  means 
of  the  Artificial  Key,  we  perceive  at  a glance  that  our  plant  belongs 
to  the  first  or  Polypetal ous  division,  having  five  separate  petals. 
Next,  its  stamens,  being  only  five,  exclude  it  from  the  subdi- 
vision marked  A ; their  position  alternate  with  the  petals  excludes 
it  from  B (p.  xviii),  but  brings  it  under  C.  Under  this  comes  the 
alternative  between  “ 1.  Calyx  free  from  the  ovary?  and  its  coun- 
terpart, 2.  (at  the  top  of  p.  xx),  in  which  the  tube  of  the  calyx  is 
adherent  to  the  ovary.  The  first  is  the  case  here. 

546.  Under  the  next  alternative  ( # ) we  are  led  to  ask  whether 
the  leaves  are  punctate  with  dots,  either  transparent,  appearing 
like  holes  when  we  hold  up  a leaf  between  the  eye  and  the  light 


FIG.  363.  Summit  or  a branch  of  the  common  Flax,  with  two  flowers.  364.  A flower 
divided  lengthwise  and  enlarged. 

FIG.  365.  Cross-section  of  an  unexpanded  flower  of  the  same,  a sort  of  diagram. 


LESSON  31.  j 


THE  MALLOW. 


189 


(at  least  with  a hand  magnifying-glass),  or  else  blackish  and  opaque. 
There  are  no  dots  ; we  accordingly  take  the  alternative  below,  with 
two  stars. 

547.  We  next  ask  (under  -t-)  whether  the  pistil  or  pistils  are  sim- 
ple. There  are  five  separate  styles,  but  only  one  ovary,  which,  when 
cut  across  (Fig.  365)  is  found  to  be  divided  within  by  partitions  into 
several  cells.  It  is  therefore  a compound  pistil  (311),  which  ex- 
cludes the  plant  from  the  section  -i—  ; while  the  cells  being  more 
than  one  exclude  it  from  the  section  h—  -i— , and  bring  it  under  the 
section  h — -t—  — (p.  xix). 

548.  The  next  question  (under  ++)  is,  Are  the  flowers  irregular 
or  regular?  Clearly  regular  (239,  244).  We  therefore  take  the 
subdivision  marked  ++  and  follow  the  analysis  under  it,  begin- 
ning with  the  word  “ Stamens.”  Having  five  of  these,  and  the  same 
number  of  petals,  our  plant  is  excluded  from  the  first  line,  and  also 
from  the  second,  but  falls  into  the  remaining  alternative,  “ Stamens 
just  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  petals.”  Under  this  comes  the 
line,  “ Ovules  and  seeds  only  one  or  two  in  each  cell.”  That  is  the 
case  with  our  plant.  Furthermore,  it  is  an  herb,  and  accordingly 
falls  into  one  of  the  two  succeeding  lines.  Its  perfect  flowers  (239), 
and  its  styles  as  many  as  the  petals,  exclude  it  from  the  first,  and 
refer  it  to  the  second  line.  Under  this  are  three  alternatives,  com- 
mencing with  the  word  “ Sepals.”  The  second,  with  five  sepals  and 
petals,  and  the  pod  (more  or  less  completely)  10-celled,  alone  accords 
with  our  plant,  and  brings  us  to  the  name  of  the  order  it  belongs  to, 
viz.  Linace^e,  described  on  page  70. 

549.  We  turn  to  this  page,  and  find  that  the  plant  agrees  well 
with  the  brief  character  of  the  order  Linaceae,  or  the  Flax  Family ; 
and  also  with  that  of  the  only  genus  it  comprises,  viz.  Linum. 

550.  As  to  the  species,  of  course  it  does  not  agree  with  either  of 
the  sorts  of  Wild  Flax  ; but  it  is  barely  mentioned  at  the  end  under 
its  specific  name  of  usitatissimum,  it  being  occasionally  found  spon- 
taneous in  fields  where  it  has  lately  been  cultivated.  If  we  find  a 
wild,  yellow-flowered  Flax  with  these  same  general  characters,  and 
having  broadish  leaves  and  distinct  styles,  it  would  be  L.  Virgini- 
anum  ; if  with  narrower  and  pointed  leaves,  and  the  styles  partly 
united,  L.  Boottii. 

551  After  one  or  two  analyses  of  this  kind,  the  student  will  be 
able  to  pass  rapidly  over  most  of  these  steps.  Suppose,  for  instance, 
a common  Mallow  to  be  the  next  subject.  Having  flowers  and  seeds, 


190 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[LESSON  31. 


it  is  Phaenogamous.  The  netted-veined  leaves,  the  structure  of  the 
stem,  and  the  leaves  of  the  flower  in  fives,  at  once  refer  it  to  Class  I. 
The  pistils,  of  the  ordinary  sort,  refer  it  to  Subclass  I.  The  five 
petals  refer  it  to  the  Polypetalous  division ; the  numerous  stamens, 
to  subdivision  A ; the  free  calyx  to  the  section  marked  1 ; the  sta- 
mens with  the  column  of  filaments  united  with  the  base  of  the  petals 
to  * * (p.  xviii)  ; and  the  calyx  being  valvate  in  the  bud  (280),  the 
monadelphous  stamens  (111),  and  the  one-celled  anthers  (Fig.  238), 
of  the  first  line  under  this  head,  bring  us  to  the  order  Malvaceae, 
described  on  page  65. 

552.  Turning  to  that  page,  we  find  that  our  plant  accords  with 
the  character  of  the  order.  The  synopsis  which  follows  contains  two 
tribes,  differing  in  the  stamens,  the  pistils,  and  the  fruit.  Our  plant 
agrees  with  Tribe  I.  Malveje.  The  stigmas  bring  it  under  the  sub- 
division marked  with  one  star,  under  which  are  four  genera.  The 
involucel  (looking  like  an  outer  calyx)  of  three  leaves  or  bractlets 
excludes  it  from  the  first  and  fourth.  The  petals  being  obcordate  or 
strongly  notched  at  the  end  exclude  it  from  the  third ; while  in  all 
points  it  agrees  with  the  second,  viz.  the  genus  Malva,  or  true 
Mallow.  Referring  to  the  full  description  of  Malva,  on  page  66, 
which  confirms  this  conclusion,  we  then  read  over  the  characters  of 
the  two  species  there  described,  especially  noting  the  more  distin- 
guishing points  in  Italic  type,  and  we  learn  at  once  that  our  speci- 
men belongs  to  the  species  rotundifolia.  Its  botanical  name, 
therefore,  is  Malva  rotundifolia. 

553.  We  will  take  one  plant  more  for  illustration.  Let  it  be  a 
sort  of  Morning-Glory  which  is  often  met  with  climbing  over  shrubs 
along  the  moist  banks  of  streams.  Its  netted-veined  leaves,  the 
leaves  of  the  calyx  and  the  stamens  being  five,  — no  less  than  the 
structure  of  the  stem,  if  we  choose  to  examine  it,  and  the  embryo 
with  two  leafy  cotyledons  (as  in  Fig.  26),  readily  inspected  if  we 
have  seeds,  — show  that  it  belongs  to  Class  I.  Its  pistil  refers  it 
of  course  to  Subclass  I.  The  corolla  being  a cup  or  funnel-shaped 
tube  excludes  the  plant  from  the  first  or  Polypetalous  division,  and 
brings  it  under  the  second  or  Monopetalous  division  (page  xx). 

554.  This  division  is  subdivided,  in  the  first  place,  by  the  number 
of  the  stamens,  and  their  position  as  respects  the  lobes  of  the  corolla. 
Now,  as  the  petals  of  the  corolla  in  this  flower  are  united  up  to  the 
very  border,  the  student  may  at  first  be  puzzled  to  tell  how  many 
lobes  it  should  have,  or,  more  properly,  how  many  petals  enter  into 


LESSON  32.] 


THE  MORNING-GLORY. 


191 


its  composition.  But  the  five  leaves  of  the  calyx  would  lead  him  to 
expect  a corolla  of  five  parts  also.  And,  although  there  are  here 
really  no  lobes  or  notches  to  be  seen,  yet  the  five  plaits  of  the  corolla 
answer  to  the  notches,  and  prove  it  to  consist  of  five  petals  perfectly 
united.  Since  the  stamens  are  of  the  same  number  as  the  plaits 
of  the  corolla,  and  are  placed  before  them  (as  may  be  best  seen  by 
splitting  down  the  corolla  on  one  side  and  spreading  it  out  flat),  it 
follows  that  they  alternate  with  the  lobes,  or  petals ; therefore  our 
plant  belongs  to  the  subdivision  C. 

555.  Next,  the  ovary  is  free  from  the  calyx ; so  the  plant  falls 
under  the  section  * * , at  the  top  of  page  xxi ; and  the  regular 
flowers  and  the  number  of  stamens  bring  it  under  the  subdivision 
-i—  -t-.  Then  our  choice  out  of  the  five  equivalent  lines  beginning 
with  “Ovary”  or  “Ovaries”  falls  upon  the  third,  viz.  “Ovary  2- 
10-celled,”  ours  being  two-celled.  Our  plant  has  a style,  and  green 
herbage,  referring  it  to  the  second  of  the  next  alternatives.  Its 
five  stamens  borne  on  the  corolla  bring  it  to  the  third  of  the  next 
set  of  lines ; and  the  absence  of  stipules,  to  the  second  line  of  the  next 
alternative ; and,  finally,  its  alternate  leaves  and  only  four-seeded  pod 
bring  us  to  the  name  of  its  order,  viz.  Convolvulace^e,  p.  332. 

556.  Then,  by  the  synopsis  of  that  order,  we  refer  the  plant  to  the 
tribe  Convolvule^e,  — to  the  section  with  one  star,  and  the  sub- 
section +-  (the  calyx  being  surrounded  by  two  broad  leafy  bracts), 
and  so  to  the  genus,  4.  Calystegia  ; and  under  that  genus  (p.  334) 
we  are  led  to  the  species  sepium:  ; — Calystegia  sepium  (or  Hedge 
Bindweed ) being  the  name  of  our  plant. 


LESSON  XXXII. 

HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS  : FURTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

557.  The  foregoing  illustrations  have  all  been  of  the  first  or  Exo- 
genous class.  We  will  take  one  from  the  other  class. 

558.  A striking  and  rather  common  plant  of  our  woods  in  spring 
is  the  Three-leaved  Nightshade,  or  Birthroot.  With  specimens  of 
this  in  hand,  and  the  Manual  before  him  open  at  the  Artificial  Key, 


192 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[lesson  32. 


page  xvii,  the  student,  seeing  at  once  that  the  plant  belongs  to  the 
Phaenogamous  series,  proceeds  to  determine  the  class.  The  netted- 
veined  leaves  would  seem  to  refer  the  plant  to  the  first  class  ; while 
the  blossom  (Fig.  366,  367),  constructed  on  the  number  three,  natu- 
rally directs  us  to  the  second  class,  in  which  this  number  almost  uni- 
versally prevails.  Here  the  student  will  be  somewhat  puzzled.  If  the 
seeds  were  ripe,  they  might  be  examined,  to  see  whether  the  embryo 
has  one  cotyledon  only,  or  a pair.  But  the  seeds  are  not  to  be  had 
in  spring.  We  must  judge,  therefore,  by  the  structure  of  the  stem. 

Is  it  exogenous  or  endogenous  ? If 
we  cut  the  stem  through,  or  take  off 
a thin  slice  crosswise  and  lengthwise, 
we  shall  perceive  that  the  woody 
matter  in  it  consists  of  a number  of 
threads,  interspersed  throughout  the 
soft  cellular  part  without  regularity, 
and  not  collected  into  a ring  or  layer. 
In  fact,  it  is  just  like  the  Corn-stalk 
(Fig.  351),  except  that  the  woody 
threads  are  fewer.  It  is  therefore  endogenous  (422)  ; and  this 
decides  the  question  in  favor  of  Class  II.  Monocotyledonous  or 
Endogenous  Plants  (page  xxiii),  notwithstanding  the  branching 
veins  of  the  leaves.  For  neither  this  character, 
nor  the  number  of  parts  in  the  plan  of  the  blos- 
som, holds  good  universally,  while  the  plan  of  the 
stem  holds  without  exception. 

559.  The  first  division  of  this  class,  in  the  Ar- 
tificial Key,  is  into  three  sections,  marked  A,  B, 
and  C.  Our  plant  plainly  belongs  to  section  B, 
the  only  one  in  which  the  flowers  exhibit  both  a calyx  and  a corolla. 

560.  Under  this  are  two  subdivisions,  marked  1 and  2.  The 
plant  we  are  examining  belongs  to  the  second,  having  solitary  (i.  e. 
single)  flowers.  This  again  is  subdivided  into  two  sections,  the  first 
with  a single  star  prefixed,  the  second  with  two  stars.  Having  the 
“ perianth  free  from  the  ovary?  our  plant  falls  into  the  second  (page 
xxiv,  line  2). 

561.  At  the  next  step  we  have  four  subdivisions  to  select  from, 
marked  by  daggers  (-t-)  : the  three  herbaceous  sepals  and  three 


FIG.  366.  Flower  of  Trillium  erectum,  viewed  from  above.  367.  Diagram  of  the  same; 
a cross-section  of  the  unopened  blossom,  showing  the  number  and  arrangement  of  parts. 


LESSON  32.] 


TRILLIUM,  OR  BIRTHROOT. 


193 


colored  petals  refer  our  plant  to  the  third,  marked  -i — -i — h — . Under 
this  we  have  four  lines  in  a row,  beginning  with  “ Pistils  ” or  “ Pistil.,, 
As  our  plant  has  a compound  pistil,  with  three  styles  or  stigmas,  but 
the  ovaries  all  united  into  one,  which  is  three-celled,  and  with  many 
ovules  (or  at  length  seeds)  in  each  cell,  it  cannot  belong  to  the  first, 
which  has  numerous  pistils  ; nor  to  the  third,  which  has  only  one  or 
two  seeds  in  each  cell ; nor  to  the  fourth,  which  has  a one-celle\I 
ovary ; but  it  does  accord  with  the  second  line.  One  step  only 
remains ; which  the  three  styles  or  stigmas  and  the  three  leaves  in 
a whorl  decide,  directing  us  to  Trilliace^e,  page  461. 

562.  On  referring  to  that  page,  we  learn  that  Trilliaceae  is  a sub- 
order of  the  order  Smilaceje,  and  that  it  comprises  two  genera. 
Our  plant  accords  with  the  first  genus,  Trillium,  which  is  fully 
characterized  on  p.  463. 

563.  We  have  now  only  to  ascertain  the  species.  The  species  of 
Trillium  are  arranged  in  two  principal  sections.  The  first  (§1) 
has  a sessile  (i.  e.  stalkless)  flower,  with  long  and  narrow  petals. 
The  second  (§  2)  has  the  flower  raised  on  a peduncle ; this  includes 
our  plant.  The  species  we  have  in  hand  has  a slender  and  nearly 
erect  peduncle  ; so  it  falls  into  the  division  * * ; it  also  has  sessile 
and  abruptly  pointed  leaves,  which  bring  it  under  the  subdivision  . 
The  shape,  size,  and  color  of  the  petals,  as  well  as  the  other  partic- 
ulars mentioned,  determine  the  species  to  be  T.  erectum. 

564.  The  student  residing  west  of  New  England  will  also  be 
likely  to  find  another  species,  with  similar  foliage,  but  with  larger, 
‘pure  white,  and  obovate  petals,  turning  rose-color  when  about  to 
fade.  This  will  at  once  be  identified  as  T.  grandijlorum.  And 
towards  the  north,  in  cold  and  damp  woods  or  swamps,  a smaller 
species  will  be  met  with,  having  dull-green  and  petioled  leaves 
rounded  at  the  base,  and  rather  narrow,  wavy,  white  petals,  marked 
with  pink  or  purple  stripes  at  the  base  : this  the  student  will  refer 
to  T.  erythrocarpum.  But  the  species  principally  found  in  the  east- 
ern parts  of  the  country  has  a short  peduncle  recurved  under  the 
leaves,  so  as  nearly  to  conceal  the  much  less  handsome,  dull  white 
flower : this  belongs  accordingly  to  the  first  division  under  § 2,  and 
is  T.  cernuum , the  Nodding  Trillium  or  Wake-Robin. 

565.  Whenever  the  student  has  fairly  studied  out  one  species  of 
a genus,  he  will  know  the  others  when  he  sees  them.  And  when 
plants  of  another  genus  of  the  same  order  are  met  with,  the  order 
may  generally  be  recognized  at  a glance,  from  the  family  resem- 

17 


194 


HOW  TO  STUDY  PLANTS. 


[LESSON  32. 


blance.  For  instance,  having  first  become  acquainted  with  the 
Convolvulus  family  in  the  genus  Calystegia  (55 6),  we  recognize  it 
at  once  in  the  common  Morning-Glory,  and  in  the  Cypress-Vine, 
and  even  in  the  Dodder,  although  these  belong  to  as  many  different 
genera.  Having  examined  the  common  Mallow  (552),  we  immedi- 
ately recognize  the  Mallow  family  ( Malvacece ) in  the  Marsh-Mallow, 
sparingly  naturalized  along  the  coast  ( Manual , p.  66),  in  the  Glade 
Mallow  and  the  Indian  Mallow  (p.  67),  in  the  Hibiscus  or  Rose- 
Mallow  (p.  68),  and  so  of  the  rest;  because  their  relationship  is 
exhibited  in  their  general  appearance,  and  in  the  whole  structure  of 
the  flowers,  if  not  of  the  foliage  also. 

566.  So  the  study  of  one  plant  leads  naturally  and  easily  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  whole  order  or  family  of  plants  it  belongs  to  ; — 
which  is  a great  advantage,  and  a vast  saving  of  labor.  For, 
although  we  have  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  orders  of  Flowering 
Plants  represented,  in  our  Botany  of  the  Northern  States,  by  about 
2,350  species,  yet  half  of  these  species  belong  to  nine  or  ten  of  these 
orders ; and  more  than  four  fifths  of  the  species  belong  to  forty  of 
the  orders.  One  or  two  hundred  species,  therefore,  well  examined, 
might  give  a good  general  idea  of  our  whole  botany.  And  stu- 
dents who  will  patiently  and  thoroughly  study  out  twenty  or  thirty 
well-chosen  examples,  will  afterwards  experience  little  difficulty  in 
determining  any  of  our  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns,  and  will  find 
the  pleasure  of  the  pursuit  largely  to  increase  with  their  increasing 
knowledge. 

567.  And  the  interest  will  be  greatly  enhanced  as  the  student, 
rising  to  higher  and  wider  views,  begins  to  discern  the  System  of 
Botany,  or,  in  other  words,  comprehends  more  and  more  of  the  Plan 
of  the  Creator  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 


LESSON  33.] 


NATURAL  SYSTEM. 


195 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

BOTANICAL  SYSTEMS. 

568.  Natural  System.  The  System  of  Botany  consists  of  the  orders 
or  families,  duly  arranged  under  their  classes,  and  having  the  tribes, 
the  genera,  and  the  species  arranged  in  them  according  to  their  re- 
lationships. This,  when  properly  carried  out,  is  the  Natural  System  ; 
because  it  is  intended  to  express,  as  well  as  we  are  able,  the  various 
degrees  of  relationship  among  plants,  as  presented  in  nature ; — to 
rank  those  species,  those  genera,  &c.  next  to  each  other  in  the  classi- 
fication which  are  really  most  alike  in  all  respects,  or,  in  other  words, 
which  are  constructed  most  nearly  on  the  same  particular  plan. 

569.  Now  this  word  plan  of  course  supposes  a planner , — an  in- 
telligent mind  working  according  to  a system : it  is  this  system, 
therefore,  which  the  botanist  is  endeavoring  as  far  as  he  can  to 
exhibit  in  a classification.  In  it  we  humbly  attempt  to  learn  some- 
thing of  the  plan  of  the  Creator  in  this  department  of  Nature. 

570.  So  there  can  be  only  one  natural  system  of  Botany,  if  by  the 
term  we  mean  the  plan  according  to  which  the  vegetable  creation 
was  called  into  being,  with  all  its  grades  and  diversities  among  the 
species,  as  well  of  past  as  of  the  present  time.  But  there  may  be 
many  natural  systems,  if  we  mean  the  attempts  of  men  to  interpret 
and  express  the  plan  of  the  vegetable  creation,  — systems  which  will 
vary  with  our  advancing  knowledge,  and  with  the  judgment  and 
skill  of  different  botanists,  — and  which  must  all  be  very  imperfect. 
They  will  all  bear  the  impress  of  individual  minds,  and  be  shaped 
by  the  current  philosophy  of  the  age.  But  the  endeavor  always  is 
to  make  the  classification  a reflection  of  Nature,  as  far  as  any  system 
can  be  which  has  to  be  expressed  in  a series  of  definite  propositions, 
and  have  its  divisions  and  subdivisions  following  each  other  in  some 
single  fixed  order.* 


* The  best  classification  must  fail  to  give  more  than  an  imperfect  and  con- 
siderably distorted  reflection,  not  merely  of  the  plan  of  creation,  but  even  of  our 
knowledge  of  it.  It  is  often  obliged  to  make  arbitrary  divisions  where  Nature 
shows  only  transitions,  and  to  consider  genera,  &c.  as  equal  units,  or  groups  of 
equally  related  species,  while  in  fact  they  may  be  very  unequal,  — to  assume,  on 


196 


BOTANICAL  SYSTEMS. 


[lesson  33. 


571.  The  Natural  System,  as  we  receive  it,  and  as  to  that  portion 
of  it  which  is  represented  in  the  botany  of  our  country,  is  laid  before 
the  student  in  the  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the  Northern  United  States. 
The  orders,  however,  still  require  to  be  grouped,  according  to  their 
natural  relationships,  into  a considerable  number  of  great  groups 
(or  alliances ) ; but  this  cannot  yet  be  done  throughout  in  any  easy 
way.  So  we  have  merely  arranged  them  somewhat  after  a custom- 
ary order,  and  have  given,  in  the  Artificial  Key , a contrivance  for 
enabling  the  student  easily  to  find  the  natural  order  of  any  plant. 
This  is  a sort  of 

572.  Artificial  Classification.  The  object  of  an  artificial  classifica- 
tion is  merely  to  furnish  a convenient  method  of  finding  out  the  name 
and  place  of  a plant.  It  makes  no  attempt  at  arranging  plants  ac- 
cording to  their  relationships,  but  serves  as  a kind  of  dictionary.  It 
distributes  plants  according  to  some  one  peculiarity  or  set  of  pecu- 
liarities (just  as  a dictionary  distributes  words  according  to  their 
first  letters),  disregarding  all  other  considerations. 

573.  At  present  we  need  an  artificial  classification  in  Botany 
only  as  a Key  to  the  Natural  Orders,  — as  an  aid  in  referring  an 
unknown  plant  to  its  proper  family ; and  for  this  it  is  very  needful  to 
the  student.  Formerly,  when  the  orders  themselves  were  not  clearly 
made  out,  an  artificial  classification  was  required  to  lead  the  student 
down  to  the  genus.  Two  such  classifications  were  long  in  vogue. 
First,  that  of  Tournefort,  founded  mainly  on  the  leaves  of  the  flower, 
the  calyx  and  corolla : this  was  the  prevalent  system  throughout  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century ; but  it  has  long  since  gone  by. 
It  was  succeeded  by  the  well-known  artificial  system  of  Linnaeus, 
which  has  been  used  until  lately ; and  which  it  is  still  worth  while 
to  give  some  account  of. 

574.  The  Artificial  System  of  LilHlECllS  was  founded  on  the  stamens 
and  pistils.  It  consists  of  twenty-four  classes,  and  of  a variable 
number  of  orders,  which  were  to  take  the  place  temporarily  of  the 
natural  classes  and  orders  ; the  genera  being  the  same  under  all 
classifications. 


paper  at  least,  a strictly  definite  limitation  of  genera,  of  tribes,  and  of  orders, 
although  observation  shows  so  much  blending  here  and  there  of  natural  groups, 
sufficiently  distinct  on  the  whole,  as  to  warrant  us  in  assuming  the  likelihood 
that  the  Creator’s  plan  is  one  of  gradation,  not  of  definite  limitation,  except  as  to 
the  species  themselves. 


LESSON  33.]  ARTIFICIAL  SYSTEM  OF  LINNAEUS. 


197 


575.  The  twenty-four  classes  of  Linnaeus  were  founded  upon 
something  about  the  stamens.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of 
them.  The  first  great  division  is  into  two  great  series,  the  Phce- 
nogamous  and  the  Cryptogamous , the  same  as  in  the  Natural  System. 
The  first  of  these  is  divided  into  those  flowers  which  have  the  sta- 
mens in  the  same  flower  with  the  pistils,  and  those  which  have  not ; 
and  these  again  are  subdivided,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  tabular 
view. 

Series  I.  PIUZENOGAMIA ; plants  with  stamens  and  pistils,  i.  e.  with  real 
flowers. 

1.  Stamens  in  the  same  flower  as  the  pistils  : 

* Not  united  with  them, 

-t-  Nor  with  one  another. 


Of  equal  length  if  either  6 or  4 in  number. 

One  to  each  flower,  Class  1. 

Monandria. 

Two 

CC 

cc 

2. 

Diandria. 

Three 

U 

« 

3. 

Triandria. 

Tour 

CC 

4. 

Tetrandria. 

Five 

cc 

cc 

5. 

Pentandria. 

Six 

“ 

“ 

6. 

Hexandria. 

Seven 

“ 

cc 

7. 

Heptandria. 

Eight 

cc 

cc 

8. 

OcTANDRIA. 

Nine 

cc 

cc 

9. 

Enneandria. 

Ten 

“ 

cc 

10. 

Decandria. 

Eleven  to  nineteen  to  each  flower, 

11. 

Dodecandria. 

Twenty  or  more  inserted  on  the  calyx, 

12. 

IcOSANDRIA. 

CC 

1 “ on  the  receptacle, 

13. 

POLYANDRIA. 

-m.  ++  Of  unequal  length  and  either  4 or  6. 


Four,  2 long  and  2 shorter, 

14. 

Didynamia. 

Six,  4 long  and  2 shorter, 

15. 

Tetradynamia. 

-i-  United  with  each  other, 

By  their  filaments, 

Into  one  set  or  tube, 

16. 

Monadelphia. 

Into  two  sets, 

17. 

Diadelphia. 

Into  three  or  more  sets, 

18. 

POLYADELPHIA. 

By  their  anthers  into  a ring, 

19. 

Syngenesia. 

# # United  with  the  pistil, 

20. 

Gynandria. 

2.  Stamens  and  pistils  in  separate  flowers, 

Of  the  same  individuals, 

21. 

Monoecia. 

Of  different  individuals, 

22. 

Dicecia. 

Some  flowers  perfect,  others  staminate  or 

pistillate  either  in  the  same  or  in  different 

individuals, 

23. 

POLYGAMIA. 

Series  II.  CRYPTOGAMIA.  No  stamens  and 

pistils,  therefore  no  proper  flowers, 

24. 

Cryptogamia. 

17  * 


198 


ARTIFICIAL  SYSTEM  OF  LINNAEUS.  [LESSON  33. 


576.  The  names  of  these  classes  are  all  compounded  of  Greek 
words.  The  first  eleven  consist  of  the  Greek  numerals,  in  succes- 
sion, from  1 to  11,  combined  with  andria,  which  here  denotes  sta- 
mens ; — e.  g.  Monandria,  with  one  stamen;  and  so  on.  The  11th 
has  the  numeral  for  twelve  stamens,  although  it  includes  all  which 
have  from  eleven  to  nineteen  stamens,  numbers  which  rarely  occur. 
The  12th  means  “ with  twenty  stamens,”  but  takes  in  any  higher 
number,  although  only  when  the  stamens  are  borne  on  the  calyx. 
The  13th  means  “ with  many  stamens,”  but  it  takes  only  those 
with  the  stamens  borne  on  the  receptacle.  The  14th  means  “two 
stamens  powerful,”  the  shorter  pair  being  supposed  to  be  weaker ; 
the  15th,  “four  powerful,”  for  the  same  reason.  The  names  of  the 
next  three  classes  are  compounded  of  adelphia , brotherhood,  and 
the  Greek  words  for  one,  two,  and  many  ( Monadelphia , Diadelphia, 
and  Polyadelphia) . The  19th  means  “united  in  one  household.” 
The  20th  is  compounded  of  the  words  for  stamens  and  pistils  united. 
The  21st  and  22d  are  composed  of  the  word  meaning  house  and  the 
numerals  one , or  single,  and  two : Moncecia,  in  one  house,  Dicecia , 
in  two  houses.  The  23d  is  fancifully  formed  of  the  words  meaning 
plurality  and  marriage , from  which  the  English  word  polygamy  is 
derived.  The  24th  is  from  two  words  meaning  concealed  nuptials, 
and  is  opposed  to  all  the  rest,  which  are  called  Phcenogamous , be- 
cause their  stamens  and  pistils,  or  parts  of  fructification,  are  evident. 

577.  Having  established  the  classes  of  his  system  on  the  stamens, 
Linnaeus  proceeded  to  divide  them  into  orders  by  marks  taken  from 
the  pistils,  for  those  of  the  first  thirteen  classes.  These  orders  de- 
pend on  the  number  of  the  pistils,  or  rather  on  the  number  of  styles, 
or  of  stigmas  when  there  are  no  styles,  and  they  are  named,  like  the 
classes,  by  Greek  numerals,  prefixed  to  gynia,  which  means  pistil. 
Thus,  flowers  of  these  thirteen  classes  with 


One  style  or  sessile  stigma  belong  to 

Order  1. 

Monogynia. 

Two  styles 

or  sessile  stigmas,  to 

2. 

Digynia. 

Three 

U 

“ 

3. 

Trigynia. 

Tour 

<C 

u 

4. 

Tetragynia. 

Five 

" 

a 

5. 

Pentagynia. 

Six 

a 

a 

6. 

Hexagynia. 

Seven 

u 

a 

7. 

Heptagynia. 

Eight 

cc 

a 

8. 

OcTOGYNIA. 

Nine 

(C 

u 

9. 

Enneagynia. 

Ten 

“ 

(C 

10. 

Decagynia. 

Eleven  or  twelve 

11. 

Dodecagynia. 

More  than  twelve 

a 

13. 

POLYGYNIA. 

LESSON  34.]  HOW  TO  COLLECT  SPECIMENS. 


199 


578.  The  orders  of  the  remaining  classes  are  founded  on  various 
considerations,  some  on  the  nature  of  the  fruit,  others  on  the  number 
and  position  of  the  stamens.  But  there  is  no  need  to  enumerate 
them  here,  nor  farther  to  illustrate  the  Linngean  Artificial  Classifi- 
cation. For  as  a system  it  has  gone  entirely  out  of  use ; and  as  a 
Key  to  the  Natural  Orders  it  is  not  so  convenient,  nor  by  any  means 
so  certain,  as  a proper  Artificial  Key,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  such 
as  we  have  been  using  in  the  preceding  Lessons. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

HOW  TO  COLLECT  SPECIMENS  AND  MAKE  AN  HERBARIUM. 

579.  For  Collecting  Specimens  the  needful  things  are  a large  knife , 
strong  enough  to  be  used  for  digging  up  bulbs,  small  rootstocks, 
and  the  like,  as  well  as  for  cutting  woody  branches ; and  a botanical 
box , or  a portfolio , for  holding  specimens  which  are  to  be  carried  to 
any  distance. 

580.  It  is  well  to  have  both.  The  botanical  box  is  most  useful 
for  holding  specimens  which  are  to  be  examined  fresh.  It  is  made 
of  tin,  in  shape  like  a candle-box,  only  flatter,  or  the  smaller  sizes 
like  an  English  sandwich-case ; the  lid  opening  for  nearly  the 
whole  length  of  one  side  of  the  box.  Any  portable  tin  box  of  con- 
venient size,  and  capable  of  holding  specimens  a foot  or  fifteen  inches 
long,  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  box  should  shut  close,  so  that 
the  specimens  may  not  wilt : then  it  will  keep  leafy  branches  and 
most  flowers  perfectly  fresh  for  a day  or  two,  especially  if  slightly 
moistened. 

581.  The  portfolio  should  be  a pretty  strong  one,  from  a foot  to 
twenty  inches  long,  and  from  nine  to  eleven  inches  wide,  and  fasten- 
ing with  tape,  or  (which  is  better)  by  a leathern  strap  and  buckle  at 
the  side.  It  should  contain  a quantity  of  sheets  of  thin  and  smooth, 
unsized  paper;  the  poorest  printing-paper  and  grocers’  tea-paper 
are  very  good  for  the  purpose.  The  specimens  as  soon  as  gathered 
are  to  be  separately  laid  in  a folded  sheet,  and  kept  under  moderate 
pressure  in  the  closed  portfolio. 


200 


HOW  TO  PRESERVE  SPECIMENS,  [LESSON  34. 


582.  Botanical  specimens  should  be  either  in  flower  or  in  fruit. 
In  the  case  of  herbs,  the  same  specimen  will  often  exhibit  the  two ; 
and  both  should  by  all  means  be  secured  whenever  it  is  possible. 
Of  small  herbs,  especially  annuals,  the  whole  plant,  root  and  all, 
should  be  taken  for  a specimen.  Of  larger  ones  branches  will  suf- 
fice, with  some  of  the  leaves  from  near  the  root.  Enough  of  the 
root  or  subterranean  part  of  the  plant  should  be  collected  to  show 
whether  the  plant  is  an  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial.  Thick  roots, 
bulbs,  tubers,  or  branches  of  specimens  intended  to  be  preserved, 
should  be  thinned  with  a knife,  or  cut  into  slices  lengthwise. 

583.  For  drying  Specimens  a good  supply  of  soft  and  unsized  paper 
— the  more  bibulous  the  better  — is  wanted  ; and  some  convenient 
means  of  applying  pressure.  All  that  is  requisite  to  make  good  dried 
botanical  specimens  is,  to  dry  them  as  rapidly  as  possible  between 
many  thicknesses  of  paper  to  absorb  their  moisture,  under  as  much 
pressure  as  can  be  given  without  crushing  the  more  delicate  parts. 
This  pressure  may  be  given  by  a botanical  press,  of  which  various 
forms  have  been  contrived  ; or  by  weights  placed  upon  a board,  — 
from  forty  to  eighty  or  a hundred  pounds,  according  to  the  quantity 
of  specimens  drying  at  the  time.  For  use  while  travelling,  a good 
portable  press  may  be  made  of  thick  binders’  boards  for  the  sides, 
holding  the  drying  paper,  and  the  pressure  may  be  applied  by  a 
cord,  or,  much  better,  by  strong  straps  with  buckles. 

584.  For  drying  paper,  the  softer  and  smoother  sorts  of  cheap 
wrapping-paper  answer  very  well.  This  paper  may  be  made  up 
into  driers , each  of  a dozen  sheets  or  less,  according  to  the  thickness, 
lightly  stitched  together.  Specimens  to  be  dried  should  be  put  into 
the  press  as  soon  as  possible  after  gathering.  If  collected  in  a port- 
folio, the  more  delicate  plants  should  not  be  disturbed,  but  the  sheets 
that  hold  them  should  one  by  one  be  transferred  from  the  portfolio 
to  the  press.  Specimens  brought  home  in  the  botanical  box  must 
be  laid  in  a folded  sheet  of  the  same  thin,  smooth,  and  soft  paper 
used  in  the  portfolio ; and  these  sheets  are  to  hold  the  plants  until 
they  are  dry.  They  are  to  be  at  once  laid  in  between  the  driers, 
and  the  whole  put  under  pressure.  Every  day  (or  at  first  even 
twice  a day  would  be  well)  the  specimens,  left  undisturbed  in  their 
sheets,  are  to  be  shifted  into  well-dried  fresh  driers,  and  the  pressure 
renewed,  while  the  moist  sheets  are  spread  out  to  dry,  that  they  may 
take  their  turn  again  at  the  next  shifting.  This  course  must  be 
continued  until  the  specimens  are  no  longer  moist  to  the  touch, — 


LESSON  34.] 


AND  FORM  AN  HERBARIUM. 


201 


which  for  most  plants  requires  about  a week ; then  they  may  be 
transferred  to  the  sheets  of  paper  in  which  they  are  to  be  preserved. 
If  a great  abundance  of  drying-paper  is  used,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  change  the  sheets  every  day,  after  the  first  day  or  two. 

585.  Herbarium.  The  botanist’s  collection  of  dried  specimens, 
ticketed  with  their  names,  place,  and  time  of  collection,  and  sys- 
tematically arranged  under  their  genera,  orders,  &c.,  forms  a Hor- 
tus  Siccus  or  Herbarium.  It  comprises  not  only  the  specimens 
which  the  proprietor  has  himself  collected,  but  those  which  he  ac- 
quires through  friendly  exchanges  with  distant  botanists,  or  in  other 
ways.  The  specimens  of  an  herbarium  may  be  kept  in  folded  sheets 
of  neat,  and  rather  thick,  white  paper ; or  they  may  be  fastened  on 
half-sheets  of  such  paper,  either  by  slips  of  gummed  paper,  or  by 
glue  applied  to  the  specimens  themselves.  Each  sheet  should  be 
appropriated  to  one  species  ; two  or  more  different  plants  should 
never  be  attached  to  the  same  sheet.  The  generic  and  specific 
name  of  the  plant  should  be  added  to  the  lower  right-hand  corner, 
either  written  on  the  sheet,  or  on  a ticket  pasted  down  at  that  corner; 
and  the  time  of  collection,  the  locality,  the  color  of  the  flowers,  and 
any  other  information  which  the  specimens  themselves  do  not  afford, 
should  be  duly  recorded  upon  the  sheet  or  the  ticket.  The  sheets 
of  the  herbarium  should  all  be  of  exactly  the  same  dimensions.  The 
herbarium  of  Linnaeus  is  on  paper  of  the  common  foolscap  size,  about 
eleven  inches  long  and  seven  wide.  But  this  is  too  small  for  an 
herbarium  of  any  magnitude.  Sixteen  and  a half  inches  by  ten 
and  a half,  or  eleven  and  a half  inches,  is  an  approved  size. 

586.  The  sheets  containing  the  species  of  each  genus  are  to  be 
placed  in  genus-covers , made  of  a full  sheet  of  thick,  colored  paper 
(such  as  the  strongest  Manilla-hemp  paper),  which  fold  to  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  species-sheet ; and  the  name  of  the  genus  is  to  be 
written  on  one  of  the  lower  corners.  These  are  to  be  arranged 
under  the  orders  to  which  they  belong,  and  the  whole  kept  in  closed 
cases  or  cabinets,  either  laid  flat  in  compartments,  like  large  “pigeon- 
holes,” or  else  placed  in  thick  portfolios,  arranged  like  folio  volumes, 
and  having  the  names  of  the  orders  lettered  on  the  back. 


' 


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■ N ! 

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■ • **  t.J 


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• ' 


GLOSSARY 


OR 

DICTIONARY  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  DESCRIB- 
ING PLANTS, 

COMBINED  WITH  AN  INDEX. 


A,  at  the  beginning  of  words  of  Greek  derivation,  commonly  signifies  a negative, 
or  the  absence  of  something ; as  apetalous,  without  petals ; aphyllous,  leaf- 
less, &c.  If  the  word  begins  with  a vowel,  the  prefix  is  an;  as  ananther- 
ous,  destitute  of  anther. 

Abnormal : contrary  to  the  usual  or  the  natural  structure. 

Aboriginal:  original  in  the  strictest  sense ; same  as  indigenous. 

Abortive:  imperfectly  formed,  or  rudimentary,  as  one  of  the  stamens  in  fig.  195, 
and  three  of  them  in  fig.  196,  p.  95. 

Abortion : the  imperfect  formation,  or  non-formation,  of  some  part. 

Abrupt:  suddenly  terminating ; as,  for  instance, 

Abruptly  pinnate:  pinnate  without  an  odd  leaflet  at  the  end ; fig.  128,  p.  65. 

Acaulescent  ( acaulis ) : apparently  stemless  ; the  proper  stem,  bearing  the  leaves 
and  flowers,  being  very  short  or  subterranean,  as  in  Bloodroot,  and  most 
Violets ; p.  36. 

Accessory:  something  additional;  as  Accessory  buds,  p.  26. 

Accrescent : growing  larger  after  flowering,  as  the  calyx  of  Physalis. 

Accumbent:  lying  against  a thing.  The  cotyledons  are  accumbent  when  they 
lie  with  their  edges  against  the  radicle. 

Acerose:  needle-shaped,  as  the  leaves  of  Pines ; fig.  140,  p.  72. 

Acetabuliform : saucer-shaped. 

Achenium  (plural  achenia)  : a one-seeded,  seed-like  fruit;  fig.  286,  p.  129. 

Achlamydeous  (flower)  : without  floral  envelopes;  as  Lizard’s-tail,  p.  90,  fig.  180. 

Acicular:  needle-shaped;  more  slender  than  acerose. 

Acinaciform : scymitar-shaped,  like  some  bean-pods. 

Acines : the  separate  grains  of  a fruit,  such  as  the  raspberry ; fig.  289. 

Acorn:  the  nut  of  the  Oak  ; fig.  299,  p.  130. 

Acotyl&donous : destitute  of  cotyledons  or  seed-leaves. 

Acrogenous:  growing  from  the  apex,  as  the  stems  of  Ferns  and  Mosses. 

Acrogens,  or  Acrogenous  Plants:  the  higher  Cryptogamous  plants,  such  as 
Ferns,  &c.,  p.  172. 


204 


GLOSSARY. 


Aculeate:  armed  with  prickles,  i.  e.  aculei;  as  the  Rose  and  Brier. 

Aculeolate : armed  with  small  prickles,  or  slightly  prickly. 

Acuminate:  taper-pointed,  as  the  leaf  in  fig.  97  and  fig.  103. 

Acute : merely  sharp-pointed,  or  ending  in  a point  less  than  a right  angle. 
Adelphous  (stamens) : joined  in  a fraternity  ( adelphia ) : see  monadelphous  and 
diadelphous. 

Adherent:  sticking  to,  or,  more  commonly,  growing  fast  to  another  body ; p.  104. 
Adnate:  growing  fast  to ; it  means  born  adherent.  The  anther  is  adnate  when 
fixed  by  its  whole  length  to  the  filament  or  its  prolongation,  as  in  Tulip- 
tree,  fig.  233. 

Adpressed,  or  oppressed:  brought  into  contact,  but  not  united. 

Adscendent,  ascendent,  or  ascending : rising  gradually  upwards. 

Adsurgent,  or  assurgent : same  as  ascending. 

Adventitious:  out  of  the  proper  or  usual  place;  e.  g.  Adventitious  buds,  p.  26,  27. 
Adventive : applied  to  foreign  plants  accidentally  or  sparingly  spontaneous  in  a 
country,  but  hardly  to  be  called  naturalized. 

^Equilateral : equal-sided  ; opposed  to  oblique. 

^Estivation : the  arrangement  of  parts  in  a flower-bud,  p.  108. 

Air-cells  or  Air-passages : spaces  in  the  tissue  of  leaves  and  some  stems,  p.  143. 
Air-Plants,  p.  34. 

Alcenium,  or  alcene.  See  achenium. 

Ala  (plural  alee) : a wing ; the  side-petals  of  a papilionaceous  corolla,  p.  105, 
fig.  218,  w. 

Alabastrum : a flower-bud. 

Alar:  situated  in  the  forks  of  a stem. 

Alate : winged,  as  the  seeds  of  Trumpet-Creeper  (fig.  316)  the  fruit  of  the  Maple, 
Elm  (fig.  301),  &c. 

Albescent : whitish,  or  turning  white. 

Absorption , p.  168. 

Albumen  of  the  seed : nourishing  matter  stored  up  with  the  embryo,  but  not 
within  it ; p.  15,  136. 

Albumen,  a vegetable  product;  a form  of  proteine,  p.  165. 

Albuminous  (seeds) : furnished  with  albumen,  as  the  seeds  of  Indian  com  (fig.  38, 
39),  of  Buckwheat  (fig.  326),  &c. 

Alburnum:  young  Avood,  sap-wood,  p.  153. 

Alpine : belonging  to  high  mountains  above  the  limit  of  forests. 

Alternate  (leaves) : one  after  another,  p.  24,  71.  Petals  are  alternate  with  the 
sepals,  or  stamens  with  the  petals,  when  they  stand  over  the  intervals  be- 
tween them,  p.  93. 

Alveolate : honeycomb-like,  as  the  receptacle  of  the  Cotton-Thistle. 

Ament : a catkin,  p.  81 . Amentaceous  : catkin-like,  or  catkin-bearing. 

Amorphous  : shapeless ; without  any  definite  form. 

Amphigastrium  (plural  amphigastria)  : a peculiar  stipule-like  leaf  of  certain 
Liverworts. 

Amphxtropous  or  Amphitropal  ovules  or  seeds,  p.  123,  fig.  272. 

AmpUctant:  embracing.  Amplexicaul  (leaves) : clasping  the  stem  by  the  base. 
Ampullaceous : swelling  out  like  a bottle  or  bladder. 

Amylaceous : composed  of  starch,  or  starch-like. 


GLOSSARY. 


205 


Andntherous : without  anthers.  Ananthous : destitute  of  flowers  ; flowerless. 

Anastomosing:  forming  a net-work  ( anastomosis ),  as  the  veins  of  leaves. 

Anatropous  or  Anatropal  ovules  or  seeds  ; p.  123,  fig.  273. 

Ancxpital  ( anceps ) : two-edged,  as  the  stem  of  Blue-eyed  Grass. 

Andrceciurn  : a name  for  the  stamens  taken  together. 

Androgynous : having  both  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  in  the  same  cluster 
or  inflorescence,  as  many  species  of  Carex. 

Androphore : a column  of  united  stamens,  as  in  a Mallow ; or  the  support  on 
which  stamens  are  raised. 

Anfractuose : bent  hither  and  thither,  as  the  anthers  of  the  Squash,  &c. 

Angiospe'rmce,  Angiospermous  Plants : with  their  seeds  formed  in  an  ovary  or  peri- 
carp, p.  183. 

Angular  divergence  of  leaves,  p.  72. 

Annual  (plant)  : flowering  and  fruiting  the  year  it  is  raised  from  the  seed,  and 
then  dying,  p.  21. 

Annular : in  the  form  of  a ring,  or  forming  a circle. 

Annulate : marked  by  rings  ; or  furnished  with  an 

Annulus,  or  ring,  like  that  of  the  spore-case  of  most  Ferns  (Manual  Bot.  N. 
States,  plate  9,  fig.  2) : in  Mosses  it  is  a ring  of  cells  placed  between  the 
mouth  of  the  spore-case  and  the  lid,  in  many  species. 

Anterior , in  the  blossom,  is  the  part  next  the  bract,  i.  e.  external : — while  the 
posterior  side  is  that  next  the  axis  of  inflorescence.  Thus,  in  the  Pea,  &c. 
the  keel  is  anterior,  and  the  standard  posterior. 

Anther:  the  essential  part  of  the  stamen,  which  contains  the  pollen ; p.  86,  113. 

Antheridium  (plural  antheridia) : the  organ  in  Mosses,  &c.  which  answers  to 
the  anther  of  Flowering  plants. 

Antheriferous : anther-bearing. 

Anthesis  : the  period  or  the  act  of  the  expansion  of  a flower. 

Anthocarpous  (fruits)  : same  as  multiple  fruits  ; p.  133. 

Anticous:  same  as  anterior. 

Antrorse : directed  upwards  or  forwards. 

Apdtalous:  destitute  of  petals  ; p.  90,  fig.  179. 

Aphyllous : destitute  of  leaves,  at  least  of  foliage. 

Apical : belonging  to  the  apex  or  point. 

Apiculate : pointletted  ; tipped  with  a short  and  abrupt  point. 

Apocarpous  (pistils) : when  the  several  pistils  of  the  same  flower  are  separate, 
as  in  a Buttercup,  Sedum  (fig.  168),  &c. 

Apdphysis : any  irregular  swelling ; the  enlargement  at  the  base  of  the  spore- 
case  of  the  Umbrella-Moss  (Manual,  plate  4),  &c. 

Appendage  • any  superadded  part. 

Appendiculate : provided  with  appendages. 

Appressed:  where  branches  are  close  pressed  to  the  stem,  or  leaves  to  the 
branch,  &c. 

Apterous : wingless. 

Aquatic : living  or  growing  in  water ; applied  to  plants  whether  growing  under 
water,  or  with  all  but  the  base  raised  out  of  it. 

Arachnoid : cobwebby  ; clothed  with,  or  consisting  of,  soft  downy  fibres. 

Arboreous,  Arborescent : tree-like,  in  size  or  form  ; p.  36. 

18 


206 


GLOSSARY. 


Archegdnium  (plural  archegonia ) : the  organ  in  Mosses,  &c.,  which  is  analogous 
to  the  pistiL  of  Flowering  Plants. 

Arcuate : bent  or  curved  like  a bow. 

Areolate : marked  out  into  little  spaces  or  areolae. 

Arillate  (seeds)  :■  furnished  with  an 

Aril  or  Arillus : a fleshy  growth  forming  a false  coat  or  appendage  to  a seed ; 
p.  135,  fig.  318. 

instate : awned,  i.  e.  furnished  with  an  arista,  like  the  beard  of  Barley,  &c. 
Aristulate : diminutive  of  the  last ; short-awned. 

Arrow-shaped  or  Arrow-headed:  same  as  sagittate ; p.  59,  fig.  95. 

Articulated:  jointed ; furnished  with  joints  or  articulations,  where  it  separates  or 
inclines  to  do  so.  Articulated  leaves,  p.  64. 

Artificial  Classification , p.  196. 

Ascending  (stems,  &c.),  p.  37  ; (seeds  or  ovules),  p.  122. 

A spergilliform  : shaped  like  the  brush  used  to  sprinkle  holy  water ; as  the  stigmas 
of  many  Grasses. 

Assimilation,  p.  162. 

Assurgent:  same  as  ascending,  p.  37. 

Atropous  or  Atropal  (ovules) : same  as  orthotropous. 

Aunculate : furnished  with  auricles  or  ear-like  appendages,  p.  59. 

Awl-shaped:  sharp-pointed  from  a broader  base,  p.  68. 

Awn : the  bristle  or  beard  of  Barley,  Oats,  &c. ; or  any  similar  bristle-like  ap- 
pendage. 

Awned:  furnished  with  an  awn  or  long  bristle-shaped  tip. 

Axil : the  angle  on  the  upper  side  between  a leaf  and  the  stem,  p.  20. 

Axile:  belonging  to  the  axis,  or  occupying  the  axis ; p.  119,  &c. 

Axillary  (buds,  &c.)  : occurring  in  an  axil,  p.  21,  77,  &c. 

Axis : the  central  line  of  any  body ; the  organ  round  which  others  are  attached ; 
the  root  and  stem.  Ascending  Axis,  p.  9.  Descending  Axis,  p.  9. 

Baccate : berry-like,  of  a pulpy  nature  like  a berry  (in  Latin  hacca) ; p.  127. 
Barbate : bearded  ; bearing  tufts,  spots,  or  lines  of  hairs. 

Barbed:  furnished  with  a barb  or  double  hook;  as  the  apex  of  the  bristle  on  the 
fruit  of  Echinospermum  (Stickseed),  &c. 

Barbellate:  said  of  the  bristles  of  the  pappus  of  some  Composite  (species  of 
Liatris,  &c),  when  beset  with  short,  stiff  hairs,  longer  than  when  denticulate, 
but  shorter  than  when  plumose. 

Barbellulate : diminutive  of  barbellate. 

Bark:  the  covering  of  a stem  outside  of  the  wood,  p.  150,  152. 

Basal : belonging  or  attached  to  the 

Base:  that  extremity  of  any  organ  by  which  it  is  attached  to  its  support. 

Bast,  Bast-fibres,  p.  147. 

Beaked:  ending  in  a prolonged  narrow  tip. 

Bearded : see  barbate.  Beard  is  sometimes  used  popularly  for  awn,  more  com- 
monly for  long  or  stiff  hairs  of  any  sort. 

Bell-shaped : of  the  shape  of  a bell,  as  the  corolla  of  Harebell,  fig.  207,  p.  102. 
Berry  : a fruit  pulpy  or  juicy  throughout,  as  a grape;  p.  127. 

Bi-  (or  Bis),  in  compound  words  : twice ; as 


GLOSSARY. 


207 


Biarticulate : twice  jointed,  or  two-jointed  ; separating  into  two  pieces. 
Biauriculate : having  two  ears,  as  the  leaf  in  fig.  96. 

Bicallose : having  two  callosities  or  harder  spots. 

Bicdrinate:  two-keeled,  as  the  upper  palea  of  Grasses. 

Bicipital  ( Biceps ) : two-headed ; dividing  into  two  parts  at  the  top  or  bottom. 
Biconjugate : twice  paired,  as  when  a petiole  forks  twice. 

Bidentate:  having  two  teeth  (not  twice  or  doubly  dentate). 

Biennial : of  two  years’  continuance ; springing  from  the  seed  one  season, 
flowering  and  dying  the  next ; p.  21. 

Bifdrious : two-ranked  ; arranged  in  two  rows. 

Bifid:  two-cleft  to  about  the  middle,  as  the  petals  of  Mouse-ear  Chickweed. 
Bifdliolate : a compound  leaf  of  two  leaflets ; p.  66. 

Bifurcate:  twice  forked;  or,  more  commonly,  forked  into  two  branches. 
Bijugate:  bearing  two  pairs  (of  leaflets,  &c.). 

Bilabiate:  two-lipped,  as  the  corolla  of  sage,  &c.,  p.  105,  fig.  209. 

Bilamellate:  of  two  plates  (lamellae),  as  the  stigma  of  Mimulus. 

Bilobed : the  same  as  two-lobed. 

Bildcular : two-celled ; as  most  anthers,  the  pod  of  Foxglove,  most  Saxifrages 
(fig.  254),  &c. 

Binate : in  couples,  two  together. 

Bipartite : the  Latin  form  of  two-parted ; p.  62. 

Bipinnate  (leaf)  : twice  pinnate  ; p.  66,  fig.  130. 

Bipinnatifid : twice  pinnatifid,  p.  64 ; that  is,  pinnatifid  with  the  lobes  again 
pinnatifid. 

Biplicate : twice  folded  together. 

Biserial,  or  Biseriate : occupying  two  rows,  one  within  the  other. 

Biserrate : doubly  serrate,  as  when  the  teeth  of  a leaf,  &c.  are  themselves  serrate. 
Biternate : twice  ternate  ; i.  e.  principal  divisions  3,  each  bearing  3 leaflets,  &c. 
Bladdery : thin  and  inflated,  like  the  calyx  of  Silene  inflata. 

Blade  of  a leaf : its  expanded  portion  ; p.  54. 

Boat-shaped:  concave  within  and  keeled  without,  in  shape  like  a small  boat. 
Brachiate:  with  opposite  branches  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  in  the 
Maple  and  Lilac. 

Bract  (Latin,  bractea).  Bracts,  in  general,  are  the  leaves  of  an  inflorescence, 
more  or  less  different  from  ordinary  leaves.  Specially,  the  bract  is  the 
small  leaf  or  scale  from  the  axil  of  which  a flower  or  its  pedicel  proceeds ; 
p.  78 ; and  a 

Bractlet  ( bracteola ) is  a bract  seated  on  the  pedicel  or  flower-stalk;  p.  78,  fig.  156. 
Branch,  p.  20,  36. 

Bristles : stiff,  sharp  hairs,  or  any  very  slender  bodies  of  similar  appearance. 
Bristly : beset  with  bristles. 

Brush-shaped : see  aspergilliform. 

Bryology : that  part  of  Botany  which  relates  to  Mosses. 

Bud:  a branch  in  its  earliest  or  undeveloped  state  ; p.  20. 

Bud-scales,  p.  22,  50. 

Bulb : a leaf-bud  with  fleshy  scales,  usually  subterranean ; p.  45,  fig.  73. 
Bulbiferous : bearing  or  producing  bulbs. 

Bulbose  or  bulbous : bulb-like  in  shape,  &c. 


208 


GLOSSARY. 


Bulblets:  small  bulbs,  borne  above  ground,  as  on  the  stems  of  the  bulb-bearing 
Lily  and  on  the  fronds  of  Cistopteris  bulbifera  and  some  other  Ferns ; p.  46. 

Bulb-scales , p.  50. 

Bullale:  appearing  as  if  blistered  or  bladdery  (from  bulla,  a bubble). 

Caducous : dropping  off  very  early,  compared  with  other  parts ; as  the  calyx  in 
the  Poppy  Family,  falling  when  the  flower  opens. 

Ccespitose,  or  Cespitose : growing  in  turf-like  patches  or  tufts,  like  most  sedges,  &c. 

Calcarate:  furnished  with  a spur  (calcar),  as  the  flower  of  Larkspur,  fig.  183, 
and  Violet,  fig.  181. 

Calculate  or  Calceiform : slipper-shaped,  like  one  petal  of  the  Lady’s  Slipper. 

Callose : hardened  ; or  furnished  with  callosities  or  thickened  spots. 

Calycine : belonging  to  the  calyx. 

Calyculate : furnished  with  an  outer  accessory  calyx  ( calyculus ) or  set  of  bracts 
looking  like  a calyx,  as  in  true  Pinks. 

Calyptra : the  hood  or  veil  of  the  capsule  of  a Moss : Manual,  p.  607,  &c. 

Calyptriform : shaped  like  a calyptra  or  candle-extinguisher. 

Calyx : the  outer  set  of  the  floral  envelopes  or  leaves  of  the  flower ; p.  85. 

Cambium  and  Cambium- layer,  p.  154. 

Campanulate:  bell-shaped;  p.  102,  fig.  207. 

Campyldtropous,  or  Campyldtropal ; curved  ovules  and  seeds  of  a particular  sort ; 
p.  123,  fig.  271. 

Campylospermous : applied  to  fruits  of  Umbelliferae  when  the  seed  is  curved  in 
at  the  edges,  forming  a groove  down  the  inner  face  ; as  in  Sweet  Cicely. 

Canaliculate : channelled,  or  with  a deep  longitudinal  groove. 

Cancellate:  latticed,  resembling  lattice-work. 

Canescent:  grayish-white;  hoary,  usually  because  the  surface  is  covered  with 
fine  white  hairs.  Incanous  is  whiter  still. 

Capillaceous,  Capillary : hair-like  in  shape  ; as  fine  as  hair  or  slender  bristles. 

Capitate:  having  a globular  apex,  like  the  head  on  a pin;  as  the  stigma  of 
Cherry,  fig.  213;  or  forming  a head,  like  the  flower-cluster  of  Button-bush, 
fig.  161. 

Capitettate:  diminutive  of  capitate ; as  the  stigmas  of  fig.  255. 

Capitulum  (a  little  head) : a close  rounded  dense  cluster  or  head  of  sessile 
flowers;  p.  80,  fig.  161. 

Capreolate:  bearing  tendrils  (from  capreolus,  a tendril). 

Capsule:  a pod;  any  dry  dehiscent  seed-vessel;  p.  131,  fig.  305,  306. 

Capsular : relating  to,  or  like  a capsule. 

Carina : a keel ; the  two  anterior  petals  of  a papilionaceous  flower,  which  are 
combined  to  form  a body  shaped  somewhat  like  the  keel  (or  rather  the 
prow)  of  a vessel;  p.  105,  fig.  218,  Tc. 

Carinate:  keeled;  furnished  with  a sharp  ridge  or  projection  on  the  lower  side. 

Cariopsis,  or  Caryopsis:  the  one-seeded  fruit  or  grain  of  Grasses,  &c.,  p.  351. 

Corneous : flesh-colored  ; pale  red. 

Carnose : fleshy  in  texture. 

Carpel,  or  Carpidium : a simple  pistil,  or  one  of  the  parts  or  leaves  of  which  a 
compound  pistil  is  composed ; p.  117. 

Carpellary ; pertaining  to  a carpel. 


GLOSSARY. 


209 


Carpology : that  department  of  Botany  which  relates  to  fruits. 

Carpophore:  the  stalk  or  support  of  a fruit  or  pistil  within  the  flower;  as  in 
fig.  276-278. 

Cartilaginous,  or  Cartilagineous : firm  and  tough,  like  cartilage,  in  texture. 

Caruncle : an  excrescence  at  the  scar  of  some  seeds ; as  those  of  Polygala. 

Carunculate : furnished  with  a caruncle. 

Caryophyllaceous : pink -like : applied  to  a corolla  of  5 long-clawed  petals ; fig.  200. 

Catkin:  a scaly  deciduous  spike  of  flowers,  an  ament;  p.  81. 

Caudate : tailed,  or  tail-pointed. 

Caudex:  a sort  of  trunk,  such  as  that  of  Palms  ; an  upright  rootstock ; p.  37. 

Caulescent : having  an  obvious  stem ; p.  36. 

Caulicle:  a little  stem,  or  rudimentary  stem;  p. -6. 

Cauline:  of  or  belonging  to  a stem  ( caulis , in  Latin),  p.  36. 

Cell  (diminutive  Cellule ) : the  cavity  of  an  anther,  ovary,  &c.,  p.  113, 119  ; one  of 
the  elements  or  vesicles  of  which  plants  are  composed ; p.  140,  142. 

Cellular  tissue  of  plants ; p.  142.  Cellular  Bark,  p.  152. 

Cellulose,  p.  159. 

Centrifugal  (inflorescence). : produced  or  expanding  in  succession  from  the  centre 
outwards ; p.  82.  The  radicle  is  centrifugal,  when  it  points  away  from  the 
centre  of  the  fruit. 

Centripetal : the  opposite  of  centrifugal;  p.  79,  83. 

Cereal : belonging  to  corn,  or  corn-plants. 

Ce'rnuous : nodding ; the  summit  more  or  less  inclining. 

Chaff:  small  membranous  scales  or  bracts  on  the  receptacle  of  Composite ; the 
glumes,  &c.  of  Grasses. 

Chaffy : furnished  with  chaff,  or  of  the  texture  of  chaff. 

Chalaza : that  part  of  the  ovule  where  all  the  parts  grow  together;  p.  122. 

Channelled:  hollowed  out  like  a gutter;  same  as  canaliculate. 

Character:  a phrase  expressing  the  essential  marks  of  a species,  genus,  &c. 
which  distinguish  it  from  all  others  ; p.  180. 

Chartaceous : of  the  texture  of  paper  or  parchment. 

Chlorophyll : the  green  grains  in  tfie  cells  of  the  leaf,  and  of  other  parts  exposed 
to  the  light,  which  give  to  herbage  its  green  color;  p.  155. 

Chrdmule:  coloring  matter  in  plants,  especially  when  not  green,  or  when  liquid. 

Cicatrix : the  scar  left  by  the  fall  of  a leaf  or  other  organ. 

Ciliate : beset  on  the  margin  with  a fringe  of  cilia , i.  e.  of  hairs  or  bristles,  like 
the  eyelashes  fringing  the  eyelids,  whence  the  name. 

Cinereous,  or  Cineraceous : ash-grayish ; of  the  color  of  ashes. 

Circinate:  rolled  inwards  from  the  top,  like  a crosier,  as  the  shoots  of  Ferns  ,* 
p.  76,  fig.  154;  the  flower-clusters  of  Heliotrope,  &c. 

Circumscissile,  or  Circumcissile : divided  by  a circular  line  round  the  sides,  as- 
the  pods  of  Purslane,  Plantain,  &c. ; p.  133,  fig.  298,  311. 

Circumscription  : the  general  outline  of  a thing. 

Cirrhiferous,  or  Cirrhose:  furnished  with  a tendril  (Latin,  cirrhus)  ; as  the  Grape>- 
vine.  Cirrhose  also  means  resembling  or  coiling  like  tendrils,  as  the  leaf- 
stalks of  Virgin Vbower ; p.  37. 

Class,  p.  175,  177. 

Classification,  p.  173. 


18* 


210 


GLOSSARY. 


Clathrate  : latticed  ; same  as  cancellate. 

Clavate : club-shaped ; slender  below  and  thickened  upwards. 

Claw:  the  narrow  or  stalk-like  base  of  some  petals,  as  of  Pinks ; p.  102,  fig.  200. 
Climbing : rising  by  clinging  to  other  objects ; p.  37. 

Club-shaped : see  clavate. 

Clustered : leaves,  flowers,  &c.  aggregated  or  collected  into  a bunch 
Clypeate : buckler-shaped. 

Coadunate  : same  as  connate ; i.  e.  united. 

Coalescent : growing  together. 

Codrctate  : contracted  or  brought  close  together. 

Coated  Bulbs,  p.  46. 

Cobwebby : same  as  arachnoid ; bearing  hairs  like  cobwebs  or  gossamer. 

Coccus  (plural  cocci) : anciently  a berry;  now  mostly  used  to  denote  the  carpels 
of  a dry  fruit  which  are  separable  from  each  other,  as  of  Euphorbia. 
Cochleariform : spoon-shaped. 

Cdchleate : coiled  or  shaped  like  a snail-shell. 

Codospermous : applied  to  those  fruits  of  Umbelliferse  which  have  the  seed  hol- 
lowed on  the  inner  face,  by  the  curving  inwards  of  the  top  and  bottom ; as  in 
Coriander. 

Coherent,  in  Botany,  is  usually  the  same  as  connate;  p.  104. 

Collective  fruits,  p.  133. 

Collum  or  Collar : the  neck  or  line  of  junction  between  the  stem  and  the  root. 
Columella : the  axis  to  which  the  carpels  of  a compound  pistil  are  often  attached, 
as  in  Geranium  (fig.  278),  or  which  is  left  when  a pod  opens,  as  in  Azalea 
and  Rhododendron. 

Column : the  united  stamens,  as  in  Mallow,  or  the  stamens  and  pistils  united  into 
one  body,  as  in  the  Orchis  family,  fig.  226. 

Columnar  : shaped  like  a column  or  pillar. 

Coma : a tuft  of  any  sort  (literally,  a head  of  hair) ; p.  135,  fig.  317. 

Comose : tufted  ; bearing  a tuft  of  hairs,  as  the  seeds  of  Milkweed ; fig.  317. 
Commissure : the  line  of  junction  of  two  carpels,  as  in  the  fruit  of  Umbelliferse, 
such  as  Parsnip,  Caraway,  &c. 

Common : used  as  “ general,”  in  contradistinction  to  “ partial  ” ; e.  g.  “ common 
involucre,”  p.  81. 

Cdmplanate : flattened. 

Compound  leaf  p.  64.  Compound  pistil,  p.  118.  Compound  umbel,  &c.,  p.  81. 
Complete  (flower),  p.  89. 

Complicate : folded  upon  itself. 

Compressed : flattened  on  two  opposite  sides. 

Conduplicate  : folded  upon  itself  lengthwise,  as  are  the  leaves  of  Magnolia  in  the 
bud,  p.  76. 

Cone : the  fruit  of  the  Pine  family  ; p.  133,  fig.  314. 

Confluent : blended  together ; or  the  same  as  coherent. 

Confirmed:  similar  to  another  thing  it  is  associated  with  or  compared  to;  or 
closely  fitted  to  it,  as  the  skin  to  the  kernel  of  a seed. 

Congested,  Congldmerate : crowded  together. 

Conjugate  : coupled ; in  single  pairs. 

Connate : united  or  grown  together  from  the  first. 


GLOSSARY. 


211 


Connective,  Connectivum : the  part  of  the  anther  connecting  its  two  cells  ; p.  113. 
Conmvent : converging,  or  brought  close  together. 

Consolidated  forms  of  vegetation,  p.  47. 

Continuous : the  reverse  of  interrupted  or  articulated. 

Contorted:  twisted  together.  Contorted  (estivation  : same  as  convolute;  p.  109. 
ContortupUcate : twisted  back  upon  itself. 

Contracted:  either  narrowed  or  shortened. 

Contrary : turned  in  an  opposite  direction  to  another  organ  or  part  with  which 
it  is  compared. 

Cdnvolute : rolled  up  lengthwise,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Plum  in  vernation ; p.  7 6, 
fig.  151.  In  aestivation,  same  as  contorted;  p.  109. 

Cordate:  heart-shaped;  p.  58,  fig.  90,  99. 

Coriaceous : resembling  leather  in  texture. 

Corky : of  the  texture  of  cork.  Corky  layer  of  bark,  p.  152. 

Corm,  Cormus : a solid  bulb,  like  that  of  Crocus ; p.  44,  fig.  71,  72. 

Cdrneous : of  the  consistence  or  appearance  of  horn,  as  the  albumen  of  the 
seed  of  the  Date,  Coffee,  &c. 

Cormculate : furnished  with  a small  horn  or  spur. 

Cornute : horned ; bearing  a horn-like  projection  or  appendage. 

Cordlla : the  leaves  of  the  flower  within  the  calyx ; p.  86. 

Corollaceous,  Corolline : like  or  belonging  to  a corolla. 

Cordna : a coronet  or  crown ; an  appendage  at  the  top  of  the  claw  of  some 
petals,  as  Silene  and  Soapwort,  fig.  200,  or  of  the  tube  of  the  corolla  of 
Hound’s-Tongue,  &c. 

Cordnate  : crowned ; furnished  with  a crown. 

Cortical : belonging  to  the  bark  {cortex). 

Cdrymb:  a sort  of  flat  or  convex  flower-cluster  ; p.  79,  fig.  158. 

Corymbdse : approaching  the  form  of  a corymb,  or  branched  in  that  way ; 
arranged  in  corymbs. 

Costa  : a rib;  the  midrib  of  a leaf,  &c.  Costate:  ribbed. 

Cotyledons  : the  first  leaves  of  the  embryo  ; p.  6,  137. 

Crater  form  : goblet-shaped  ; broadly  cup-shaped. 

Creeping  (stems)  : growing  flat  on  or  beneath  the  ground  and  rooting;  p.  37. 
Cremocarp : a half-fruit,  or  one  of  the  two  carpels  of  Umbelliferse. 

Crenate,  or  Crenelled : the  edge  scalloped  into  rounded  teeth ; p.  62,  fig.  114. 
Crested,  or  Cristate : bearing  any  elevated  appendage  like  a crest. 

Cribrose  : pierced  like  a sieve  with  small  apertures. 

Crinite : bearded  with  long  hairs,  &c. 

Crown : see  corona. 

Crowning : borne  on  the  apex  of  anything. 

Cruciate,  or  Cruciform : cross-shaped,  as  the  four  spreading  petals  of  the  Mus- 
tard (fig.  187),  and  all  the  flowers  of  that  family. 

Crustaceous  : hard,  and  brittle  in  texture  ; crust-like. 

Cryptogamous,  or  Cryptogamic : relating  to  Cryptogamia;  p.  172-201. 

Cucullate : hooded,  or  hood-shaped,  rolled  up  like  a cornet  of  paper,  or  a hood 
( cucullus ),  as  the  spathe  of  Indian  Turnip,  fig.  162. 

Culm  : a straw ; the  stem  of  Grasses  and  Sedges. 

Cuneate,  Cuneiform : wedge-shaped ; p.  58,  fig.  94. 


212 


GLOSSARY. 


Cup-shaped:  same  as  cyathiform,  or  near  it. 

Cupule : a little  cup  ; the  cup  to  the  acorn  of  the  Oak,  p.  130,  fig.  299. 

Cupulate : provided  with  a cupule. 

Cuspidate  : tipped  with  a sharp  and  stiff  point. 

Cut : same  as  incised,  or  applied  generally  to  any  sharp  and  deep  division. 
Cuticle : the  skin  of  plants,  or  more  strictly  its  external  pellicle. 

Cyathiform, : in  the  shape  of  a cup,  or  particularly  of  a wine-glass. 

Cycle  • one  complete  turn  of  a spire,  or  a circle ; p.  73. 

Cyclical:  rolled  up  circularly,  or  coiled  into  a complete  circle. 

Cycldsis : the  circulation  in  closed  cells,  p.  167. 

Cylindraceous : approaching  to  the 

Cylindrical  form ; as  that  of  stems,  &c.,  which  are  round,  and  gradually  if  at  all 
tapering. 

Cymbcefiorm,  or  Cymbiform : same  as  boat-shaped. 

Cyme:  a cluster  of  centrifugal  inflorescence,  p 82,  fig.  165,  167. 

Cymose : furnished  with  cymes,  or  like  a cyme. 

Deca-  (in  composition  of  words  of  Greek  derivation)  : ten ; as 
Decagynous  : with  10  pistils  or  styles.  Decandrous  : with  10  stamens. 

Deciduous : falling  off,  or  subject  to  fall , said  of  leaves  which  fall  in  autumn, 
and  of  a calyx  and  corolla  which  fall  before  the  fruit  forms. 

Declined : turned  to  one  side,  or  downwards,  as  the  stamens  of  Azalea  nudiflora. 
Decompound : several  times  compounded  or  divided  ; p 67,  fig.  138. 

Decumbent:  reclined  on  the  ground,  the  summit  tending  to  rise;  p.  37. 

Decurrent  (leaves) : prolonged  on  the  stem  beneath  the  insertion,  as  in  Thistles. 
Decussate : arranged  in  pairs  which  successively  cross  each  other ; fig.  147. 
Definite : when  of  a uniform  number,  and  not  above  twelve  or  so. 

Deflexed:  bent  downwards. 

Deflorate : past  the  flowering  state,  as  an  anther  after  it  has  discharged  its  pollen. 
Dehiscence : the  mode  in  which  an  anther  or  a pod  regularly  bursts  or  splits 
open;  p.  132. 

Dehiscent : opening  by  regular  dehiscence. 

Deliquescent:  branching  off  so  that  the  stem  is  lost  in  the  branches,  p.  25. 
Deltoid:  of  a triangular  shape,  like  the  Greek  capital  A. 

Demersed:  growing  below  the  surface  of  water. 

Dendroid,  Dendritic : tree-like  in  form  or  appearance. 

Dentate:  toothed  (from  the  Latin  dens,  a tooth),  p.  61,  fig.  113. 

Denticulate : furnished  with  denticulations,  or  very  small  teeth : diminutive  of 
the  last. 

Depauperate  (impoverished  or  starved) : below  the  natural  size. 

Depressed : flattened,  or  as  if  pressed  down  from  above  ; flattened  vertically. 
Descending  : tending  gradually  downwards. 

Determinate  Inflorescence,  p.  81,  83. 

Dextrorse  : turned  to  the  right  hand. 

Di-  (in  Greek  compounds) : two,  as 

Diaddphous  (stamens) : united  by  their  filaments  in  two  sets ; p.  Ill,  fig.  227. 
Diandrous : having  two  stamens,  p.  112. 

Diagnosis ; a short  distinguishing  character,  or  descriptive  phrase. 


GLOSSARY. 


213 


Diaphanous : transparent  or  translucent. 

Dichlamydeous  (flower)  : having  both  calyx  and  corolla. 

Dichdtomons : two-forked. 

Diclinous:  having  the  stamens  in  one  flower,  the  pistils  in  another;  p.  89, 
fig.  176,  177. 

Dicdccous  (fruit) : splitting  into  two  cocci,  or  closed  carpels. 

Dicotyledonous  (embryo) : having  a pair  of  cotyledons  ; p.  16,  137. 

Dicotyledonous  Plants,  p.  150,  182. 

Didymous : twin. 

Didynamous  (stamens) ; having  four  stamens  in  two  pairs,  one  pair  shorter  than 
the  other,  as  in  fig.  194,  195. 

Diffuse : spreading  widely  and  irregularly. 

Digitate  (fingered) : where  the  leaflets  of  a compound  leaf  are  all  borne  on  the 
apex  of  the  petiole ; p.  65,  fig.  129. 

Digynous  (flower)  : having  two  pistils  or  styles,  p.  116. 

Dimerous : made  up  of  two  parts,  or  its  organs  in  twos. 

Dimidiate : halved ; as  where  a leaf  or  leaflet  has  only  one  side  developed,  or  a 
stamen  has  only  one  lobe  or  cell ; fig.  239. 

Dimorphous : of  two  forms. 

Dioecious,  or  Dioicous : where  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  separate  flowers  on 
different  plants ; p.  89. 

Dipetalous : of  two  petals.  Diphyllous : two-leaved.  Dipterous ; two-winged. 
Disciform  or  Disk-shaped : flat  and  circular,  like  a disk  or  quoit. 

Disk : the  face  of  any  flat  body  ; the  central  part  of  a head  of  flowers,  like  the 
Sunflower,  or  Coreopsis  (fig.  224),  as  opposed  to  the  ray  or  margin;  a 
fleshy  expansion  of  the  receptacle  of  a flower ; p.  125. 

Dissected ; cut  deeply  into  many  lobes  or  divisions. 

Dissepiments : the  partitions  of  an  ovary  or  a fruit;  p.  119. 

Distichous  : two-ranked  ; p.  73. 

Distinct:  uncombined  with  each  other  ; p.  102. 

Divaricate ; straddling ; very  widely  divergent. 

Divided  (leaves,  &c.)  : cut  into  divisions  extending  about  to  the  base  or  the  mid- 
rib ; p.  62,  fig.  125. 

Dodeca-  (in  Greek  compounds) : twelve;  as 
Dodecagynous : with  twelve  pistils  or  styles. 

Dodecandrous : with  twelve  stamens. 

Dolabriform : axe-shaped. 

Dorsal:  pertaining  to  the  back  ( dorsum ) of  an  organ. 

Dorsal  Suture,  p.  117. 

Dotted  Ducts,  p.  148. 

Double  Flowers,  so  called  : where  the  petals  are  multiplied  unduly ; p.  85,  98. 
Downy : clothed  with  a coat  of  soft  and  short  hairs. 

Drupe:  a stone-fruit;  p.  128,  fig.  285. 

Drupaceous : like  or  pertaining  to  a drupe. 

Ducts : the  so-called  vessels  of  plants;  p.  146,  148. 

Dumose:  bushy,  or  relating  to  bushes. 

Duramen:  the  heart-wood,  p.  153. 

Dwarf:  remarkably  low  in  stature. 


214 


GLOSSARY. 


E-,  or  Ex-,  at  the  beginning  of  compound  words,  means  destitute  of ; as  ecostate, 
without  a rib  or  midrib ; exalbuminous,  without  albumen,  &c. 

Eared:  see  auriculate;  p.  59,  fig.  96. 

Ebracteate ; destitute  of  bracts. 

Echinate : armed  with  prickles  (like  a hedgehog).  Echmulate:  a diminutive  of  it. 
Edentate : toothless. 

Effete : past  bearing,  &c. ; said  of  anthers  which  have  discharged  their  pollen. 
Eglandulose : destitute  of  glands. 

Elaters : threads  mixed  with  the  spores  of  Liverworts.  (Manual,  p.  682.) 
Ellipsoidal : approaching  an  elliptical  figure. 

Elliptical : oval  or  oblong,  with  the  ends  regularly  rounded ; p.  58,  fig.  88. 
Emarginate  : notched  at  the  summit ; p.  60,  fig.  108. 

Embryo : the  rudimentary  undeveloped  plantlet  in  a seed;  p.  6,  fig.  9,  12,  26, 
31  -37,  &c.,  and  p.  136.  Embryo-sac,  p.  139. 

Emersed : raised  out  of  water. 

Endecagynous : with  eleven  pistils  or  styles.  Endecandrous : with  eleven  stamens* 
Endocarp : the  inner  layer  of  a pericarp  or  fruit ; p.  128. 

Endochrome : the  coloring  matter  of  Algas  and  the  like. 

Endogenous  Stems,  p.  150.  Endogenous  Plants,  p.  150. 

Endosmose : p.  168. 

Endosperm  : another  name  for  the  albumen  of  a seed. 

Endostome : the  orifice  in  the  inner  coat  of  an  ovule. 

Ennea- : nine.  Ennedgynous  : with  nine  petals  or  styles. 

Enneandrous  : with  nine  stamens. 

Ensiform : sword-shaped  ; as  the  leaves  of  Iris,  fig.  134. 

Entire:  the  margins  not  at  all  toothed,  notched,  or  divided,  but  even ; p.  61. 
Ephemeral : lasting  for  a day  or  less,  as  the  corolla  of  Purslane,  &c. 

Epi-y  in  composition : upon ; as 

Epicarp : the  outermost  layer  of  a fruit ; p.  128. 

Epidermal:  relating  to  the  Epidermis , or  the  skin  of  a plant ; p.  152,  155. 
Epigceous : growing  on  the  earth,  or  close  to  the  ground. 

Epigynous : upon  the  ovary  ; p.  105,  111. 

Epipetalous:  borne  on  the  petals  or  the  corolla. 

Epiphyllous : borne  on  a leaf. 

Epiphyte : a plant  growing  on  another  plant,  but  not  nourished  by  it ; p.  34. 
Epiphytic  or  Epiphytal : relating  to  Epiphytes ; p.  34. 

Episperm : the  skin  or  coat  of  a seed,  especially  the  outer  coat. 

Equal : same  as  regular ; or  of  the  same  number  or  length,  as  the  case  may  be, 
of  the  body  it  is  compared  with. 

Equally  pinnate : same  as  abruptly  pinnate;  p.  65. 

Equitant  (riding  straddle)  ; p.  68,  fig.  133,  134. 

Erose : eroded,  as  if  gnawed. 

Erdstrate : not  beaked. 

Essential  Organs  of  the  flower,  p.  85. 

Estivation:  see  aestivation. 

Etiolated:  blanched  by  excluding  the  light,  as  the  stalks  of  Celery. 

Evergreen : holding  the  leaves  over  winter  and  until  new  ones  appear,  or  longer. 
Exalbuminous  (seed)  : destitute  of  albumen ; p.  136. 


GLOSSARY. 


215 


Excdrrent : running  out,  as  when  a midrib  projects  beyond  the  apex  of  a leaf, 
or  a trunk  is  continued  to  the  very  top  of  a tree. 

Exhalation , p.  156,  169. 

Exogenous  Stems,  p.  150.  Exogenous  Plants,  p.  182. 

Exostome:  the  orifice  in  the  outer  coat  of  the  ovule ; p.  122. 

Explanate : spread  or  flattened  out. 

Exserted:  protruding  out  of,  as  the  stamens  out  of  the  corolla  of  fig.  201. 
Exstipulate : destitute  of  stipules. 

Extra-axillary : said  of  a branch  -or  bud  a little  out  of  the  axil ; as  the  upper 
accessory  buds  of  the  Butternut,  p.  27,  fig.  52. 

Extrdrse : turned  outwards ; the  anther  is  extrorse  when  fastened  to  the  filament 
on  the  side  next  the  pistil,  and  opening  on  the  outer  side,  as  in  Iris ; p.  113. 

Falcate : scythe-shaped ; a flat  body  curved,  its  edges  parallel. 

Family:  p.  176. 

Farinaceous : mealy  in  texture.  Farinose : covered  with  a mealy  powder. 
Fdsciate:  banded  ; also  applied  to  monstrous  stems  which  grow  flat. 

Fascicle:  a close  cluster  ; p.  83. 

Fascicled,  Fasciculated : growing  in  a bundle  or  tuft,  as  the  leaves  of  Pine 
and  Larch  (fig.  139,  140),  the  roots  of  Pteony  and  Dahlia,  fig.  60. 

Fastigiate : close,  parallel,  and  upright,  as  the  branches  of  Lombardy  Poplar. 
Faux  (plural,  fauces)  : the  throat  of  a calyx,  corolla,  &c. 

Faveolate,  Favose : honeycombed ; same  as  alveolate. 

Feather-veined : where  the  veins  of  a leaf  spring  from  along  the  sides  of  a mid- 
rib ; p.  57,  fig.  86  - 94. 

Female  (flowers)  : with  pistils  and  no  stamens. 

Fenestrate : pierced  with  one  or  more  large  holes,  like  windows. 

Ferrugineous,  or  Ferruginous : resembling  iron-rust ; red-grayish. 

Fertile : fruit-bearing,  or  capable  of  producing  fruit ; also  said  of  anthers  when 
they  produce  good  pollen. 

Fertilization : the  process  by  which  pollen  causes  the  embryo  to  be  formed. 

Fibre,  p.  145.  Fibrous:  containing  much  fibre,  or  composed  of  fibres. 

Fibrillose : formed  of  small  fibres. 

Fibrine,  p.  165. 

Fiddle-shaped : obovate  with  a deep  recess  on  each  side. 

Filament:  the  stalk  of  a stamen;  p.  86,  fig.  170,  a;  also  any  slender  thread- 
shaped appendage. 

Filamentose,  or  Filamentous : bearing  or  formed  of  slender  threads. 

Filiform  : thread-shaped  ; long,  slender,  and  cylindrical. 

Fimbriate:  fringed;  furnished  with  fringes  ( fimbrice ). 

Fistular  or  Fistulose:  hollow  and  cylindrical,  as  the  leaves  of  the  Onion. 
Fhxbelliform  or  Flabdlate : fan-shaped ; broad,  rounded  at  the  summit,  and  nar- 
rowed at  the  base. 

Flagellate,  or  Flage'lliform  < long,  narrow,  and  flexible,  like  the  thong  of  a whip  ; 

or  like  the  runners  (flagellce)  of  the  Strawberry. 

Flavescent : yellowish,  or  turning  yellow. 

Fleshy : composed  of  firm  pulp  or  flesh. 

Fleshy  Plants,  p.  47. 


216 


GLOSSARY. 


Flexuose,  or  Flexuous : bending  gently  in  opposite  directions,  in  a zigzag  way. 
Floating : swimming  on  the  surface  of  water. 

Floccose : composed,  or  bearing  tufts,  of  woolly  or  long  and  soft  hairs. 

Flora  (the  goddess  of  flowers):  the  plants  of  a country  or  district,  taken 
together,  or  a work  systematically  describing  them ; p.  3. 

Floral:  relating  to  the  blossom. 

Floral  Envelopes  : the  leaves  of  the  flower ; p.  85,  99. 

Floret : a diminutive  flower ; one  of  the  flowers  of  a head  (or  of  the  so-called 
compound  flower)  of  Composite,  p.  106. 

Flower : the  whole  organs  of  reproduction  of  Phsenogamous  plants ; p.  84. 
Flower -bud:  an  unopened  flower. 

Flowering  Plants,  p.  177.  Flowerless  Plants,  p.  172,  177. 

Foliaceous : belonging  to,  or  of  the  texture  or  nature  of,  a leaf  {folium). 

Fdliose : leafy ; abounding  in  leaves. 

Foliolate:  relating  to  or  bearing  leaflets  (foliola). 

Follicle:  a simple  pod,  opening  down  the  inner  suture  ; p.  131,  fig.  302. 
Follicular : resembling  or  belonging  to  a follicle. 

Food  of  Plants,  p.  160. 

Foramen : a hole  or  orifice,  as  that  of  the  ovule  ; p.  122. 

Fornix : little  arched  scales  in  the  throat  of  some  corollas,  as  of  Comfrey. 
Fornicate : over-arched,  or  arching  over. 

Foveate:  deeply  pitted.  Fove'olate:  diminutive  of foveate. 

Free : not  united  with  any  other  parts  of  a different  sort ; p.  103. 

Fringed : the  margin  beset  with  slender  appendages,  bristles,  &c. 

Frond : what  answers  to  leaves  in  Ferns ; the  stem  and  leaves  fused  into  ono 
body,  as  in  Duckweed  and  many  Liverworts,  &c. 

Frondescence : the  bursting  into  leaf. 

Frdndose : frond-bearing  ; like  a frond  : or  sometimes  used  for  leafy. 
Fructification:  the  state  of  fruiting.  Organs  of,  p.  76. 

Fruit:  the  matured  ovary  and  all  it  contains  or  is  connected  with;  p.  126. 
Frutescent:  somewhat  shrubby;  becoming  a shrub  ( frutex ). 

Fruticulose : like  a small  shrub.  Fruticose : shrubby ; p.  36. 

Fugacious  : soon  falling  off  or  perishing. 

Fulvous : tawny ; dull  yellow  with  gray. 

Funiculus:  the  stalk  of  a seed  or  ovule;  p.  122. 

Funnel  form,  or  Funnel-shaped:  expanding  gradually  upwards,  like  a funnel 
or  tunnel;  p.  102. 

Furcate:  forked. 

Furfuraceous : covered  with  bran-like  fine  scurf. 

Furrowed : marked  by  longitudinal  channels  or  grooves. 

Fuscous:  deep  gray-brown. 

Fusiform : spindle-shaped ; p.  32. 

Galeate:  shaped  like  a helmet  (galea)’,  as  the  upper  sepal  of  the  Monkshood, 
fig.  185,  and  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  of  Dead-Nettle,  fig.  209. 
Gamopetalous : of  united  petals  ; same  as  monopetalous,  and  a better  word ; p.  102. 
Gamophyllous : formed  of  united  leaves.  Gamosepalous : formed  of  united  sepals. 
Gelatine,  p.  165. 


GLOSSARY. 


217 


Geminate : twin ; in  pairs ; as  the  flowers  of  Linntea. 

Gemma : a bud. 

Gemmation : the  state  of  budding,  or  the  arrangement  of  parts  in  the  bud. 
Gdmmule : a small  bud  ; the  buds  of  Mosses ; the  plumule,  p.  6. 

Geniculate:  bent  abruptly,  like  a knee  {genu),  as  many  stems. 

Genus : a kind  ; a rank  above  species;  p.  175,  176. 

Generic  Names,  p.  178.  Generic  Character,  p.  181. 

Geographical  Botany : the  study  of  plants  in  their  geographical  relations,  p.  3. 
Germ:  a growing  point;  a young  bud;  sometimes  the  same  as  embryo;  p.  136. 
Germen : the  old  name  for  ovary. 

Germination:  the  development  of  a plantlet  from  the  seed;  p.  5,  137. 

Gibbous : more  tumid  at  one  place  or  on  one  side  than  the  other. 

Glabrate : becoming  glabrous  with  age,  or  almost  glabrous. 

Glabrous : smooth,  i.  e.  having  no  hairs,  bristles,  or  other  pubescence. 

Gladiate:  sword-shaped;  as  the  leaves  of  Iris,  fig.  134. 

Glands : small  cellular  organs  which  secrete  oily  or  aromatic  or  other  products  : 
they  are  sometimes  sunk  in  the  leaves  or  rinl,.as  in  the  Orange,  Prickly 
Ash,  &c. ; sometimes  on  the  surface  as  small  projections ; sometimes  raised 
on  hairs  or  bristles  {glandular  hairs,  Spc.),  as  in  the  Sweetbrier  and  Sun- 
dew. The  name  is  also  given  to  any  small  swellings,  &c.,  whether  they 
secrete  anything  or  not. 

Glandular,  Glandulose : furnished  with  glands,  or  gland-like. 

Gians  ( Gland) : the  acorn  or  mast  of  Oak  and  similar  fruits. 

Glaucescent : slightly  glaucous,  or  bluish-gray. 

Glaucous : covered  with  a bloom,  viz.  with  a fine  white  powder  that  rubs  off,  like 
that  on  a fresh  plum,  or  a cabbage-leaf. 

Globose : spherical  in  form,  or  nearly  so.  Gldbular : nearly  globose. 

Glochidiate  (hairs  or  bristles):  barbed;  tipped  with  barbs,  or  with  a double 
hooked  point. 

Gldmerate : closely  aggregated  into  a dense  cluster. 

Gldmerule:  a dense  head-like  cluster;  p.  83. 

Glossology : the  department  of  Botany  in  which  technical  terms  are  explained. 
Glumaceous : glume-like,  or  glume-bearing. 

Glume : Glumes  are  the  husks  or  floral  coverings  of  Grasses,  or,  particularly, 
the  outer  husks  or  bracts  of  each  spikelet.  (Manual,  p.  535.) 

Glumelles : the  inner  husks,  or  palese,  of  Grasses. 

Gluten:  a vegetable  product  containing  nitrogen;  p.  165. 

Granular : composed  of  grains.  Granule : a small  grain. 

Growth,  p.  138. 

Grumous  or  Grumose : formed  of  coarse  clustered  grains. 

Guttate : spotted,  as  if  by  drops  of  something  colored. 

Gymnocarpous : naked-fruited. 

Gymnospermous:  naked-seeded;  p.  121. 

Gymnospe'rmce,  or  Gymnospermous  Plants,  p.  184  ; Manual,  p.  xxiii. 

Gynandrous : with  stamens  borne  on,  i.  e.  united  with,  the  pistil ; p.  Ill,  fig.  226. 
Gyncecium  : a name  for  the  pistils  of  a flower  taken  altogether. 

Gynobase : a particular  receptacle  or  support  of  the  pistils,  or  of  the  carpels  of 
a compound  ovary,  as  in  Geranium,  fig.  277,  278. 

19 


218 


GLOSSARY. 


Gynophore : a stalk  raising  a pistil  above  the  stamens,  as  in  the  Cleome  Family, 
p.  276. 

Gyrate : coiled  in  a circle  : same  as  circinate. 

Gyrose : strongly  bent  to  and  fro. 

Habit : the  general  aspect  of  a plant,  or  its  mode  of  growth. 

Habitat : the  situation  in  which  a plant  grows  in  a wild  state. 

Hairs : hair-like  projections  or  appendages  of  the  surface  of  plants. 

Hairy : beset  with  hairs,  especially  longish  ones. 

Halberd-shaped,  or  Halberd-headed:  see  hastate. 

Halved:  when  appearing  as  if  one  half  of  the  body  were  cut  away. 

Hamate  or  Hamose : hooked  ; the  end  of  a slender  body  bent  round. 

Hamulose : bearing  a small  hook  ; a diminutive  of  the  last. 

Hastate  or  Hastile : shaped  like  a halberd ; furnished  with  a spreading  lobe  on 
each  side  at  the  base  ; p.  59,  fig.  97. 

Heart-shaped:  of  the  shape  of  a heart  as  commonly  painted ; p.  58,  fig.  90. 
Heart-wood:  the  older  or  matured  wood  of  exogenous  trees;  p.  153. 

Helicoid : coiled  like  a helix  or  snail-shell. 

Helmet:  the  upper  sepal  of  Monkshood  in  this  shape,  fig.  185,  &c. 

Hemi-  (in  compounds  from  the  Greek)  : half ; e.  g.  Hemispherical,  &c. 

Hemicarp:  half-fruit,  or  one  carpel  of  an  Umbelliferous  plant. 

Hemxtropous  or  Hemxtropal  (ovule  or  seed):  nearly  same  as amphitropous,  p.  123. 
Hepta-  (in  words  of  Greek  origin) : seven;  as, 

Heptagynous : with  seven  pistils  or  styles. 

Heptamerous : its  parts  in  sevens.  Heptandrous:  having  seven  stamens. 

Herb,  p.  20. 

Herbaceous:  of  the  texture  of  common  herbage;  not  woody;  p.  36. 

Herbarium:  the  botanist’s  arranged  collection  of  dried  plants;  p.  201. 
Hermaphrodite  (flower) : having  both  stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  blossom ; 
same  as  perfect;  p.  89. 

Heterocarpous : bearing  fruit  of  two  sorts  or  shapes,  as  in  Amphicarpsea. 
Heterogamous : bearing  two  or  more  sorts  of  flowers  as  to  their  stamens  and 
pistils ; as  in  Aster,  Daisy,  and  Coreopsis. 

Heteromdrphous : of  two  or  more  shapes. 

Heterdtropous,  or  Heterdtropal  (ovule)  : the  same  as  amphitropous;  p.  123. 

Hexa-  (in  Greek  compounds) : six;  as 

Hexagonal:  six-angled.  Hexagynous : with  six  pistils  or  styles. 

Hexamerous : its  parts  in  sixes.  Hexandrous : with  six  stamens. 

Hexapterous : six-winged. 

Hilar : belonging  to  the  hilum. 

Hilum:  the  scar  of  the  seed;  its  place  of  attachment;  p.  122,  135. 
Hippocrdpiform : horseshoe-shaped. 

Hirsute : hairy  with  stiffish  or  beard-like  hairs. 

Hispid:  bristly  ; beset  with  stiff  hairs.  Hispidulous  is  a diminutive  of  it. 

Hoary : grayish-white ; see  canescent,  &c. 

Homogamous : a head  or  cluster  with  flowers  all  of  one  kind,  as  in  Eupatorium. 
Homogeneous : uniform  in  nature  ; all  of  one  kind. 

Homomallous  (leaves,  &c.) : originating  all  round  a stem,  but  all  bent  or  curved 
round  to  one  side. 


GLOSSARY. 


219 


Homomdrplious : all  of  one  shape. 

Homdtropous  or  H&mdtropal  (embryo) : curved  with  the  seed;  curved  one  way. 
Hood : same  as  helmet  or  galea.  Hooded : hood-shaped  ; see  cucullate. 

Hooked:  same  as  hamate. 

Horn : a spur  or  some  similar  appendage.  Horny : of  the  texture  of  horn. 
Hortns  Siccus:  an  herbarium,  or  collection  of  dried  plants;  p.  201. 

Humifuse : spread  over  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Hyaline : transparent,  or  partly  so. 

Hybrid:  a cross-breed  between  two  allied  species. 

Hypocrateriform : salver-shaped;  p.  101,  fig.  202,  208. 

Hypogdean : produced  under  ground. 

Hypogynous : inserted  under  the  pistil;  p.  103,  fig.  212. 

Icosandrous:  having  12  or  more  stamens  inserted  on  the  calyx. 

Imbricate,  Imbricated,  Imbricative : overlapping  one  another,  like  tiles  or  shingles 
on  a roof,  as  the  scales  of  the  involucre  of  Zinnia,  &c.,  or  the  bud-scales  of 
Horsechesnut  (fig.  48)  and  Hickory  (fig.  49).  In  aestivation,  where  some 
leaves  of  the  calyx  or  corolla  are  overlapped  on  both  sides  by  others ; p.  109. 
Immarginate : destitute  of  a rim  or  border. 

Immersed:  growing  wholly  under  water. 

Impari-pinnate : pinnate  with  a single  leaflet  at  the  apex;  p.  65,  fig.  126. 
Imperfect  flowers:  wanting  either  stamens  or  pistils ; p.  89. 

Incequilateral : unequal-sided,  as  the  leaf  of  a Begonia. 

Incanous : hoary  with  white  pubescence. 

Incised:  cut  rather  deeply  and  irregularly  ; p.  62. 

Included:  enclosed ; when  the  part  in  question  does  not  project  beyond  another. 
Incomplete  Flower : wanting  calyx  or  corolla ; p.  90. 

Incrassated : thickened. 

Incumbent : leaning  or  resting  upon : the  cotyledons  are  incumbent  when  the 
back  of  one  of  them  lies  against  the  radicle;  the  anthers  are  incumbent 
when  turned  or  looking  inwards,  p.  113. 

Incurved:  gradually  curving  inwards. 

Indefinite:  not  uniform  in  number,  or  too  numerous  to  mention  (over  12). 
Indefinite  or  Indeterminate  Inflorescence:  p.  77. 

Indehiscent:  not  splitting  open ; i.  e.  not  dehiscent;  p.  127. 

Indigenous : native  to  the  country. 

Individuals:  p.  173. 

Induplicate:  with  the  edges  turned  inwards  ; p.  109. 

Indusium:  the  shield  or  covering  of  a fruit-dot  of  a Fern.  (Manual,  p.  588.) 
Inferior:  growing  below  some  other  organ;  p.  104,  121. 

Inflated:  turgid  and  bladdery. 

Inflexed:  bent  inwards. 

Inflorescence:  the  arrangement  of  flowers  on  the  stem;  p.  76. 

Infra-axillaiy : situated  beneath  the  axil. 

lnfundibuliform  or  Infundibular:  funnel-shaped;  p.  102,  fig.  199. 

Innate  (anther) : attached  by  its  base  to  the  very  apex  of  the  filament;  p.  113. 
Innovation : an  incomplete  young  shoot,  especially  in  Mosses. 

Inorganic  Constituents,  p.  160. 


220 


GLOSSARY. 


Insertion : the  place  or  the  mode  of  attachment  of  an  organ  to  its  support ; p.  72. 
Intercellular  Passages  or  Spaces,  p.  143,  fig.  341. 

Internode : the  part  of  a stem  between  two  nodes  ; p.  42. 

Interruptedly  pinnate:  pinnate  with  small  leaflets  intermixed  with  larger  ones, 
as  in  Water  Avens. 

Intrafoliaceous  (stipules,  &c.)  : placed  between  the  leaf  or  petiole  and  the  stem. 
Introrse:  turned  or  facing  inwards,  i.  e.  towards  the  axis  of  the  flower;  p.  113. 
Inverse  or  Inverted:  where  the  apex  is  in  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the 
organ  it  is  compared  with. 

Involucel:  a partial  or  small  involucre;  p.  81. 

Involucellate : furnished  with  an  involucel. 

Involucrate : furnished  with  an  involucre. 

Involucre : a whorl  or  set  of  bracts  around  a flower,  umbel,  or  head ; p.  79. 
Involute , in  vernation,  p.  76  : rolled  inwards  from  the  edges. 

Irregular  Flowers,  p.  91. 

Jointed:  separate  or  separable  at  one  or  more  places  into  pieces ; p.  64,  &c. 

Keel:  a projecting  ridge  on  a surface,  like  the  keel  of  a boat;  the  two  anterior 
petals  of  a papilionaceous  corolla;  p.  105,  fig.  217,  218,  Tc. 

Keeled:  furnished  with  a keel  or  sharp  longitudinal  ridge. 

Kernel  of  the  ovule  and  seed,  p.  122,  136. 

Kidney -shaped : resembling  the  outline  of  a kidney;  p.  59,  fig.  100. 

Labellum:  the  odd  petal  in  the  Orchis  Family. 

Labiate:  same  as  bilabiate  or  two-lipped;  p.  105. 

Lacmiate:  slashed;  cut  into  deep  narrow  lobes  (called  lacinice). 

Lactescent : producing  milky  juice,  as  does  the  Milkweed,  &c. 

Lacunose : full  of  holes  or  gaps. 

Lcevigaie:  smooth  as  if  polished. 

Lamellar  or  Lamellate:  consisting  of  flat  plates  ( lamellae ). 

Lamina : a plate  or  blade  : the  blade  of  a leaf,  &c.,  p.  54. 

Lanate : woolly ; clothed  with  long  and  soft  entangled  hairs. 

Lanceolate:  lance-shaped;  p.  58,  fig.  86. 

Lanuginous : cottony  or  woolly. 

Latent  buds : concealed  or  undeveloped  buds ; p.  26,  27. 

Lateral:  belonging  to  the  side. 

Latex : the  milky  juice,  &c.  of  plants. 

Lax:  loose  in  texture,  or  sparse;  the  opposite  of  crowded. 

Leaf,  p.  49.  Leaf-buds,  p.  20,  27. 

Leaflet:  one  of  the  divisions  or  blades  of  a compound  leaf;  p.  64. 

Leaf  like:  same  as  foliaceous. 

Leathery : of  about  the  consistence  of  leather ; coriaceous. 

Legume:  a simple  pod,  dehiscent  into  two  pieces,  like  that  of  the  Pea,  p.  131, 
fig.  303 ; the  fruit  of  the  Pea  Family  ( Leguminosce ),  of  whatever  shape. 
Legumine,  p.  165. 

Leguminous:  belonging  to  legumes,  or  to  the  Leguminous  Family. 

Lenticular : lens-shaped ; i.  e.  flattish  and  convex  on  both  sides. 


GLOSSARY. 


221 


Lepidote : leprous ; covered  with  scurfy  scales. 

Liber:  the  inner,  fibrous  bark  of  Exogenous  plants;  p.  152. 

Ligneous,  or  Lignose : woody  in  texture. 

Ligulate:  furnished  with  a ligule;  p.  106. 

Ligule:  the  strap-shaped  corolla  in  many  Compositse,  p.  106,  fig.  220;  the 
little  membranous  appendage  at  the  summit  of  the  leaf-sheaths  of  most 
Grasses. 

Limb:  the  blade  ot  a leaf,  petal,  &c. ; p.  54,  102. 

Linear:  narrow  and  flat,  the  margins  parallel;  p.  58,  fig.  85. 

Lineate : marked  with  parallel  lines.  Lineolate : marked  with  minute  lines. 
Lingulate,  Linguiform:  tongue-shaped. 

Lip : the  principal  lobes  of  a bilabiate  corolla  or  calyx,  p.  105  ; the  odd  and 
peculiar  petal  in  the  Orchis  Family. 

Lobe:  any  projection  or  division  (especially  a rounded  one)  of  a leaf,  &c. 
Locellus  (plural  locelli ) : a small  cell,  or  compartment  of  a cell,  of  an  ovary  or 
anther. 

Locular : relating  to  the  cell  or  compartment  ( loculus ) of  an  ovary,  &c. 

Loculicidal  (dehiscence) : splitting  down  through  the  middle  of  the  back  of  each 
cell ; p.  132,  fig.  305. 

Locusta : a name  for  the  spikelet  of  Grasses. 

Loment:  a pod  which  separates  transversely  into  joints;  p.  131,  fig.  304. 
Lomentaceous : pertaining  to  or  resembling  a loment. 

Ldrate:  thong-shaped. 

Lunate:  crescent-shaped.  Lunulate:  diminutive  of  lunate. 

Lyrate : lyre-shaped ; a pinnatifid  leaf  of  an  obovate  or  spatulate  outline,  the 
end-lobe  large  and  roundish,  and  the  lower  lobes  small,  as  in  Winter- 
Cress  and  Radish,  fig.  59. 

Mace:  the  aril  of  the  Nutmeg;  p.  135. 

Maculate : spotted  or  blotched. 

Male  (flowers) : having  stamens  but  no  pistil. 

Mammose : breast-shaped. 

Marcescent : withering  without  falling  off. 

Marginal:  belonging  to  the  edge  or  margin. 

Marginate : margined,  with  an  edge  different  from  the  rest. 

Masked:  see  personate. 

Median  : belonging  to  the  middle. 

Medullary : belonging  to,  or  of  the  nature  of  pith  ( medulla ) ; pithy. 

Medullary  Rays:  the  silver-grain  of  wood ; p.  151. 

Medullary  Sheath:  a set  of  ducts  just  around  the  pith;  p.  151. 

Membranaceous  or  Membranous : of  the  texture  of  membrane ; thin  and  more  or 
less  translucent. 

Mentscoid : crescent-shaped. 

M&icarp : one  carpel  of  the  fruit  of  an  Umbelliferous  plant. 

Merismatic:  separating  into  parts  by  the  formation  of  partitions  within. 

Mdsocarp : the  middle  part  of  a pericarp,  when  that  is  distinguishable  into  three 
layers ; p.  1 28. 

Mesophloeum : the  middle  or  green  bark. 

19  * 


222 


GLOSSARY. 


Micropyle : the  closed  orifice  of  the  seed ; p.  135. 

Midrib:  the  middle  or  main  rib  of  a leaf;  p.  55. 

Milk-Vessels : p.  148. 

Miniate : vermilion-colored. 

Mitriform : mitre-shaped ; in  the  form  of  a peaked  cap. 

Monadelphous : stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  one  set;  p.  111. 
Monandrous  (flower) : having  only  one  stamen;  p.  112. 

Moniliform : necklace-shaped ; a cylindrical  body  contracted  at  intervals. 
Monochlamydeous : having  only  one  floral  envelope,  i.  e.  calyx  but  no  corolla,  as 
Anemone,  fig.  179,  and  Castor-oil  Plant,  fig.  178. 

Monocotyledonous  (embryo) : with  only  one  cotyledon;  p.  16,  137. 
Monocotyledonous  Plants,  p.  150,  192. 

Monoecious,  or  Monoicous  (flower) : having  stamens  or  pistils  only ; p.  90. 
Mondgynous  (flower) : having  only  one  pistil,  or  one  style;  p.  116. 

Monopetalous  (flower) : with  the  corolla  of  one  piece ; p.  101. 

Monophyllous : one-leaved,  or  of  one  piece ; p.  102. 

Monosepalous : a calyx  of  one  piece ; i.  e.  with  the  sepals  united  into  one  body ; 

p.  101. 

Monospermous : one-seeded. 

Monstrosity : an  unnatural  deviation  from  the  usual  structure  or  form. 

Morphology : the  department  of  botany  which  treats  of  the  forms  which  an  organ 
(say  a leaf)  may  assume;  p.  28. 

Mucronate:  tipped  with  an  abrupt  short  point  ( mucro ) ; p.  60,  fig.  111. 
Mucronulate : tipped  with  a minute  abrupt  point ; a diminutive  of  the  last. 

Multi-,  in  composition : many ; as 

Multangular:  many-angled.  Multicipital : many-headed,  &c. 

Multifaripus : in  many  rows  or  ranks.  Multijid : many-cleft;  p.  62. 

Multildcular : m any-celled.  Multiserial:  in  many  rows. 

Multiple  Fruits,  p.  133. 

Muricate : beset  with  short  and  hard  points. 

Muriform : wall-like ; resembling  courses  of  bricks  in  a wall. 

Muscology : the  part  of  descriptive  botany  which  treats  of  Mosses  (i.  e.  Musci). 
Muticous : pointless  ; beardless ; unarmed. 

Mycelium  : the  spawn  of  Fungi ; i.  e.  the  filaments  from  which  Mushrooms,  &c. 
originate. 

Ndpiform:  turnip-shaped;  p.  31,  fig.  57. 

Natural  System:  p.  195. 

Naturalized:  introduced  from  a foreign  country,  but  growing  perfectly  wild  and 
propagating  freely  by  seed. 

Navicular:  boat-shaped,  like  the  glumes  of  most  Grasses. 

Necklace-shaped:  looking  like  a string  of  beads  ; see  moniliform. 

Nectar : the  honey,  &c.  secreted  by  glands,  or  by  any  part  of  the  corolla. 
Nectariferous : honey-bearing ; or  having  a nectary. 

Nectary : the  old  name  for  petals  and  other  parts  of  the  flower  when  of  unusual 
shape,  especially  when  honey-bearing.  So  the  hollow  spur-shaped  petals  of 
Columbine  were  called  nectaries ; also  the  curious  long-clawed  petals  of 
Monkshood,  fig.  186,  &c. 


GLOSSARY. 


223 


Needle-shaped:  long,  slender,  and  rigid,  like  the  leaves  of  Pines ; p.  68,  fig.  140. 
Nerve:  a name  for  the  ribs  or  veins  of  leaves,  when  simple  and  parallel ; p.  56. 
Nerved : furnished  with  nerves,  or  simple  and  parallel  ribs  or  veins  ; p.  56,  fig.  84. 
Netted-veined : furnished  with  branching  veins  forming  network;  p.  56,  fig.  83. 
Nodding  (in  Latin  form,  Nutant ) : bending  so  that  the  summit  hangs  downward. 
Node:  a knot ; the  “ joints  ” of  a stem,  or  the  part  whence  a leaf  or  a pair  of 
leaves  springs  ; p.  40. 

Nddose : knotty  or  knobby.  Nifdulose : furnished  with  little  knobs  or  knots. 
Normal : according  to  rule  ; the  pattern  or  natural  way  according  to  some  law. 
Notate : marked  with  spots  or  lines  of  a different  color. 

Nucamentaceous : relating  to  or  resembling  a small  nut. 

Nuciform : nut-shaped  or  nut-like.  Nucule  : a small  nut. 

Nucleus:  the  kernel  of  an  ovule  (p.  122)  or  seed  (p.  136)  of  a cell ; p.  140. 

Nut : a hard,  mostly  one-seeded  indehiscent  fruit ; as  a chestnut,  butternut, 
acorn  ; p.  130,  fig.  299. 

Nutlet : a little  nut ; or  the  stone  of  a drupe. 

Ob-  (meaning  over  against) : when  prefixed  to  words,  signifies  inversion ; as, 
Obcompressed : flattened  the  opposite  of  the  usual  way. 

Obcordate:  heart-shaped  with  the  broad  and  notched  end  at  the  apex  instead  of 
the  base ; p.  60,  fig.  109. 

Obl&nceolate : lance-shaped  with  the  tapering  point  downwards  ; p.  58,  fig.  91. 
Oblique : applied  to  leaves,  &c.  means  unequal-sided. 

Oblong : from  two  to  four  times  as  long  as  broad,  and  more  or  less  elliptical 
in  outline ; p.  58,  fig.  87. 

Obdvate:  inversely  ovate,  the  broad  end  upward  ; p.  58,  fig.  93. 

Obtuse:  blunt,  or  round  at  the  end  ; p.  60,  fig.  105. 

Obverse:  same  as  inverse. 

Obvolute  (in  the  bud) : when  the  margins  of  one  leaf  alternately  overlap  those  of 
the  opposite  one. 

Ochreate:  furnished  with  ochrece  (boots),  or  stipules  in  the  form  of  sheaths;  as 
in  Polygonum,  p.  69,  fig.  137. 

Ochroleucous : yellowish- white ; dull  cream-color. 

Octo-,  eight,  enters  into  the  composition  of 
Octaggnous : with  eight  pistils  or  styles. 

Octamerous : its  parts  in  eights.  Octandrous : with  eight  stamens,  &c. 

Offset:  short  branches  next  the  ground  which  take  root ; p.  38. 

One-ribbed,  One-nerved,  &c. : furnished  with  only  a single  rib,  &c.,  &c. 

Opaque,  applied  to  a surface,  means  dull,  not  shining. 

Operculate:  furnished  with  a lid  or  cover  ( operculum ),  as  the  capsules  of  Mosses. 
Opposite : said  of  leaves  and  branches  when  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  from 
each  other  (i.  e.  in  pairs) ; p.  23,  71.  Stamens  are  opposite  the  petals,  &c. 
when  they  stand  before  them. 

Orbicular,  Orbiculate : circular  in  outline  or  nearly  so  ; p.  58. 

Organ : any  member  of  the  plant,  as  a leaf,  a stamen,  &c. ; p.  1 
Organs  of  Vegetation,  p.  7 ; of  Reproduction,  p.  77. 

Organized,  Organic:  p.  1,  158,  159,  162. 

Organic  Constituents,  p.  160.  Organic  Structure,  p.  142. 


224 


GLOSSARY. 


Orthdtropous  or  Orthdtropal  (ovule  or  seed)  : p.  122,  135,  fig.  270,  274. 

Osseous : of  a bony  texture. 

Oval:  broadly  elliptical;  p.  88. 

Ovary : that  part  of  the  pistil  containing  the  ovules  or  future  seeds ; p.  86,  116. 

Ovate : shaped  like  an  egg  with  the  broader  end  downwards,  or,  in  plane  sur- 
faces, such  as  leaves,  like  the  section  of  an  egg  lengthwise  ; p.  58,  fig.  89. 

Ovoid : ovate  or  oval  in  a solid  form. 

Ovule:  the  body  which  is  destined  to  become  a seed;  p.  86,  116,  122. 

Palea  (plural  palece)  : chaff ; the  inner  husks  of  Grasses  ; the  chaff  or  bracts  on 
the  receptaple  of  many  Composite,  as  Coreopsis,  fig.  220,  and  Sunflower. 

Paleaceous : furnished  with  chaff,  or  chaffy  in  texture. 

Palmate : when  leaflets  or  the  divisions  of  a leaf  all  spread  from  the  apex  of  the 
petiole,  like  the  hand  with  the  outspread  fingers  ; p.  167,  fig.  129,  &c. 

Palmately  (veined,  lobed,  &c.)  : in  a palmate  manner;  p.  57,  63,  65. 

Panduriform:  fiddle-shaped  (which  see). 

Panicle : an  open  cluster ; like  a raceme,  but  more  or  less  compound ; p.  81, 
fig.  163. 

Panicled,  Paniculate : arranged  in  panicles,  or  like  a panicle. 

Papery : of  about  the  consistence  of  letter-paper. 

Papilionaceous:  butterfly-shaped;  applied  to  such  a corolla  as  that  of  the  Pea 
and  the  Locust-tree;  p.  105,  fig.  217. 

Papilla  (plural  papillae) : little  nipple-shaped  protuberances. 

Papillate,  Papillose : covered  with  papillae. 

Pappus : thistle-down.  The  down  crowning  the  achenium  of  the  Thistle,  and 
other  Composite,  represents  the  calyx ; so  the  scales,  teeth,  chaff,  as  well 
as  bristles,  or  whatever  takes  the  place  of  the  calyx  in  this  family,  are  called 
the  pappus  ; fig.  292-296,  p.  130. 

Parallel-veined,  or  nerved  (leaves) : p.  55,  56. 

Paraphyses : jointed  filaments  mixed  with  the  antheridia  of  Mosses.  (Manual, 
p.  607.) 

Parenchyma : soft  cellular  tissue  of  plants,  like  the  green  pulp  of  leaves. 

Parietal  (placentae,  &c.) : attached  to  the  walls  ( parietes ) of  the  ovary  or  peri- 
carp; p.  119,  120. 

Parted:  separated  or  cleft  into  parts  almost  to  the  base;  p.  62. 

Partial  involucre,  same  as  an  involucel : partial  petiole,  a division  of  a main  leaf- 
stalk or  the  stalk  of  a leaflet : partial  peduncle,  a branch  of  a peduncle : par- 
tial umbel,  an  umbellet,  p.  81. 

Patent : spreading ; open.  Patulous : moderately  spreading. 

Pauci-,  in  composition : few ; as  pauciflorous,  few-flowered,  &c. 

Pear-shaped : solid  obovate,  the  shape  of  a pear. 

Pectinate : pinnatifid  or  pinnately  divided  into  narrow  and  close  divisions,  like 
the  teeth  of  a comb. 

Pedate : like  a bird’s  foot ; palmate  or  palmately  cleft,  with  the  side  divisions 
again  cleft,  as  in  Viola  pedata,  &c. 

Pedately  cleft,  lobed,  &c.  : cut  in  a pedate  way. 

Pedicel:  the  stalk  of  each  particular  flower  of  a cluster;  p.  78,  fig.  156. 

Pedicellate,  Pedicelled:  furnished  with  a pedicel. 


GLOSSARY. 


225 


Peduncle : a flower-stalk,  whether  of  a single  flower  or  of  a flower-cluster;  p.  78. 

Peduncled,  Pedunculate : furnished  with  a peduncle. 

Peltate : shield-shaped : said  of  a leaf,  whatever  its  shape,  when  the  petiole  is 
attached  to  the  lower  side,  somewhere  within  the  margin  ; p.  59,  fig.  102,  178. 

Pendent : hanging.  Pendulous : somewhat  hanging  or  drooping. 

Pemcillate : tipped  with  a tuft  of  fine  hairs,  like  a painter’s  pencil ; as  the  stig- 
mas of  some  Grasses. 

Penta-  (in  words  of  Greek  composition) : five  ; as 

Pentagynous  : with  five  pistils  or  styles  ; p.  116. 

Pentamerous : with  its  parts  in  fives,  or  on  the  plan  of  five. 

Pentandrous  : having  five  stamens  ; p.  112.  Pentastichous : in  five  ranks. 

Pepo:  a fruit  like  the  Melon  and  Cucumber;  p.  128. 

Perennial:  lasting  from  year  to  year  ; p.  21. 

Perfect  (flower) : having  both  stamens  and  pistils  ; p.  89. 

Perfoliate:  passing  through  the  leaf,  in  appearance  ; p.  67,  fig.  131,  132. 

Perforate : pierced  with  holes,  or  with  transparent  dots  resembling  holes,  as.  an 
Orange-leaf. 

Perianth : the  leaves  of  the  flower  generally,  especially  when  we  cannot  readily 
distinguish  them  into  calyx  and  corolla  ; p.  85. 

Pericarp : the  ripened  ovary  ; the  walls  of  the  fruit ; p.  127. 

Pericarpic : belonging  to  the  pericarp. 

Pe'richceth : the  cluster  of  peculiar  leaves  at  the  base  of  the  fruit-stalk  of  Mosses. 

Perichcetial : belonging  to  the  perichaeth. 

Perigonium , Peri  gone:  same  as  perianth. 

Perigynium  : bodies  around  the  pistil ; applied  to  the  closed  cup  or  bottle-shaped 
body  which  encloses  the  ovary  of  Sedges,  and  to  the  bristles,  little  scales, 
&c.  of  the  flowers  of  some  other  Cyperaceae. 

Perigynous : the  petals  and  stamens  borne  on  the  calyx;  p.  104,  111. 

Peripheric : around  the  outside,  or  periphery,  of  any  organ. 

Pe'risperm : a name  for  the  albumen  of  a seed  (p.  136). 

Peristome : the  fringe  of  teeth,  &c.  around  the  orifice  of  the  capsule  of  Mosses. 
(Manual,  p.  607.) 

Persistent : remaining  beyond  the  period  when  such  parts  commonly  fall,  as  the 
leaves  of  evergreens,  and  the  calyx,  &c.  of  such  flowers  as  remain  during 
the  growth  of  the  fruit. 

Personate : masked  ; a bilabiate  corolla  with  a projection,  or  palate,  in  the  throat, 
as  of  the  Snapdragon  ; p.  106,  fig.  210,  211. 

Petal:  a leaf  of  the  corolla;  p.  85. 

Petaloid:  petal-like;  resembling  or  colored  like  petals. 

Petiole : a footstalk  of  a leaf ; a leaf-stalk,  p.  54. 

Petioled , Petiolate : furnished  with  a petiole. 

Petidlulate : said  of  a leaflet  when  raised  on  its  own  partial  leafstalk. 

Phcendgamous,  or  Phanerdgamous : plants  bearing  flowers  and  producing  seeds ; 
same  as  Flowering  Plants  ; p.  177,  182. 

Phyllddium  (plural  phyllodia)  : a leaf  where  the  blade  is  a dilated  petiole,  as  in 
New  Holland  Acacias  ; p.  69. 

Phyllotaxis,  or  Phyllotaxy  : the  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stem  ; p.  71. 

Physiological  Botany,  Physiology,  p.  3. 


226 


GLOSSARY. 


Phyton  : a name  used  to  designate  the  pieces  which  by  their  repetition  make  up 
a plant,  theoretically,  viz.  a joint  of  stem  with  its  leaf  or  pair  of  leaves. 

Piliferous:  bearing  a slender  bristle  or  hair  (pilum),  or  beset  with  hairs. 

Pilose : hairy  ; clothed  with  soft  slender  hairs. 

Pinna  : a primary  branch  of  the  petiole  of  a bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaf,  as  fig. 
130,  p.  66. 

Pinnule : a secondary  branch  of  the  petiole  of  a bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaf;  p.  66. 

Pinnate  (leaf)  : when  the  leaflets  are  arranged  along  the  sides  of  a common  pe- 
tiole ; p.  65,  fig.  126  - 128. 

Pinnately  lobed , cleft,  parted,  divided , &c.,  p.  63. 

Pinnatifid:  same  as  pinnately  cleft;  p.  63,  fig.  119. 

Pistil : the  seed-bearing  organ  of  the  flower  ; p.  86,  116. 

Pistillidium  : the  body  which  in  Mosses,  Liverworts,  &c.  answers  to  the  pistil. 

Pitchers,  p.  51,  fig.  79,  80. 

Pith : the  cellular  centre  of  an  exogenous  stem  ; p.  150,  151. 

Pitted : having  small  depressions  or  pits  on  the  surface,  as  many  seeds. 

Placenta : the  surface  or  part  of  the  ovary  to  which  the  ovules  are  attached  ; 

p.  118. 

Plaited  (in  the  bud) ; p.  76,  fig.  150 ; p.  110,  fig.  225. 

Plane:  flat,  outspread. 

Plicate : same  as  plaited . 

Plumose:  feathery;  when  any  slender  body  (such  as  a bristle  of  a pappus)  is 
beset  with  hairs  along  its  sides,  like  the  plumes  or  the  beard  on  a feather. 

Plumule : the  little  bud  or  first  shoot  of  a germinating  plantlet  above  the  cotyle- 
dons ; p.  6,  fig.  5 ; p.  137. 

Pluri-,  in  composition  : many  or  several ; as 

Plurifoliolate : with  several  leaflets  ; p.  66. 

Pod:  specially  a legume,  p.  131 ; also  applied  to  any  sort  of  capsule. 

Pddosperm : the  stalk  of  a seed. 

Pointless : destitute  of  any  pointed  tip,  such  as  a mucro,  awn,  acumination,  &c. 

Pollen:  the  fertilizing  powder  of  the  anther;  p.  86,  114. 

Pollen-mass : applied  to  the  pollen  when  the  grains  all  cohere  into  a mass,  as  in 
Milkweed  and  Orchis. 

Poly-  (in  compound  words  of  Greek  origin)  : same  as  multi-  in  those  of  Latin 
origin,  viz.  many  ; as 

Polyadelphous : having  the  stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  several  bun- 
dles ; p.  112. 

Polyandrous : with  numerous  (more  than  20)  stamens  (inserted  on  the  recep- 
tacle) ; p.  112. 

Poly  cot yUdonous : having  many  (more  than  two)  cotyledons,  as  Pines;  p.  17, 
137,  fig.  45,  46. 

Polygamous : having  some  perfeet  and  some  separated  flowers,  on  the  same  or  on 
different  individuals,  as  the  Red  Maple. 

Polygonal : many-angled. 

Polygynous:  with  many  pistils  or  styles  ; p.  116. 

Polymerous : formed  of  many  parts  of  each  set. 

Polymdrphous  : of  several  or  varying  forms. 

Polypetalous  : when  the  petals  are  distinct  or  separate  (whether  few  or  many)  ; 
p.  103. 


GLOSSARY. 


227 


Polyphyllous : many-leaved ; formed  of  several  distinct  pieces,  as  the  calyx  of 
Sedum,  fig.  168,  Flax,  fig.  174,  &c. 

Polysdpalous : same  as  the  last  when  applied  to  the  calyx  ; p.  103. 

Polyspermous many-seeded. 

Pome:  the  apple,  pear,  and  similar  fleshy  fruits  ; p.  128. 

Porous : full  of  holes  or  pores. 

Pouch:  the  silicle  or  short  pod,  as  of  Shepherd’s  Purse  ; p.  133. 

Prcefloration : same  as  (estivation;  p.  108. 

Prcefoliation : same  as  vernation  ; p.  7 5. 

Prcemdrse : ending  abruptly,  as  if  bitten  off. 

Prickles  : sharp  elevations  of  the  bark,  coming  off  with  it,  as  of  the  Rose ; p.  39. 
Prickly : bearing  prickles,  or  sharp  projections  like  them. 

Primine:  the  outer  coat  of  the  covering  of  the  ovule  ; p.  124. 

Primordial : earliest  formed  ; primordial  leaves  are  the  first  after  the  cotyledons. 
Prismatic : prism-shaped ; having  three  or  more  angles  bounding  flat  or  hollowed 
sides. 

Process : any  projection  from  the  surface  or  edge  of  a body. 

Procumbent : trailing  on  the  ground ; p.  37. 

Produced : extended  or  projecting,  as  the  upper  sepal  of  a Larkspur  is  produced 
above  into  a spur ; p.  91,  fig.  183. 

Proliferous  (literally,  bearing  offspring)  : where  a new  branch  rises  from  an 
older  one,  or  one  head  or  cluster  of  flowers  out  of  another,  as  in  Filago 
Germanica,  &c. 

Prostrate  : lying  flat  on  the  ground. 

Prdteine:  a vegetable  product  containing  nitrogen  ; p.  165. 

Protoplasm  : the  soft  nitrogenous  lining  or  contents  of  cells  ; p.  165. 

Priiinose,  Pruinate : frosted  ; covered  with  a powder  like  hoar-frost. 

Puberulent:  covered  with  fine  and  short,  almost  imperceptible  down. 

Pubescent : hairy  or  downy,  especially  with  fine  and  soft  hairs  or  pubescence. 
Pulverulent,  or  Pulveraceous : dusted ; covered  with  fine  powder,  or  what  looks 
like  such. 

Pulvinate : cushioned,  or  shaped  like  a cushion. 

Punctate:  dotted,  either  with  minute  holes  or  what  look  as  such  (as  the  leaves  of 
St.  John’s-wort  and  the  Orange),  or  with  minute  projecting  dots. 

Pungent : very  hard,  and  sharp-pointed  ; prickly-pointed. 

Putdmen:  the  stone  of  a drupe,  or  the  shell  of  a nut ; p.  128. 

Pyramidal : shaped  like  a pyramid. 

Pyrene,  Pyrena : a seed-like  nutlet  or  stone  of  a small  drape. 

Pyxis,  Pyxidium : a pod  opening  round  horizontally  by  a lid ; p.  133,  fig.  298,  311. 

Quadri-,  in  words  of  Latin  origin  : four ; as 
Quadrangular : four-angled.  Quadrifoliate : four-leaved. 

Quadrifid:  four-cleft;  p 62. 

Quaternate  : in  fours.  Quinate : in  fives. 

Qumcuncial : in  a quincunx  ; when  the  parts  in  aestivation  are  five,  two  of  them 
outside,  two  inside,  and  one  half  out  and  half  in,  as  shown  in  the  calyx, 
fig.  224. 

Quintuple : five-fold. 


228 


GLOSSARY. 


Race : a marked  variety  which  may  be  perpetuated  from  seed  ; p.  1 74. 

Raceme : a flower-cluster,  with  one-flowered  pedicels  arranged  along  the  sides  of 
a general  peduncle  ; p.  78,  fig.  156. 

Racemose : bearing  racemes,  or  raceme-like. 

Rachis : see  rhachis. 

Radial : belonging  to  the  ray. 

Radiate,  or  Radiant:  furnished  with  ray-flowers  ; p.  107. 

Radical:  belonging  to  the  root,  or  apparently  coming  from  the  root. 

Radicant : rooting,  taking  root  on  or  above  the  ground,  like  the  stems  of  Trum- 
pet-Creeper and  Poison-Ivy.  ' 

Radicels : little  roots  or  rootlets. 

Radicle : the  stem-part  of  the  embryo,  the  lower  end  of  which  forms  the  root ; p. 
6,  fig.  4,  &c. ; p.  137. 

Rameal:  belonging  to  a branch.  Ramose:  full  of  branches  (rami). 

Ramulose : full  of  branchlets  (ramulji). 

Raphe : see  rhaphe. 

Ray : the  marginal  flowers  of  a head  (as  of  Coreopsis,  p.  107,  fig.  219)  or  cluster 
(as  of  Hydrangea,  fig.  167),  when  different  from  the  rest,  especially  when 
ligulate,  and  diverging  (like  rays  or  sunbeams) ; the  branches  of  an  umbel, 
which  diverge  from  a centre;  p.  79. 

Receptacle:  the  axis  or  support  of  a flower;  p.  86,  124;  the  common  axis  or 
support  of  a head  of  flowers ; fig.  230. 

Reclined:  turned  or  curved  downwards;  nearly  recumbent. 

Recurved:  curved  outwards  or  backwards. 

Reduplicate  (in  aestivation) : valvate  with  the  margins  turned  outwards,  p.  109. 
Reflexed : bent  outwards  or  backwards. 

Refracted:  bent  suddenly,  so  as  to  appear  broken  at  the  bend. 

Regular : all  the  parts  similar ; p.  89. 

Reniform:  kidney-shaped  ; p.  58,  fig.  100. 

Repand:  wavy-margined  ; p.  62,  fig.  115. 

Repent:  creeping,  i.  e.  prostrate  and  rooting  underneath. 

Replum : the  persistent  frame  of  some  pods  (as  of  Prickly  Poppy  and  Cress), 
after  the  valves  fall  away. 

Reproduction,  organs  of : all  that  pertains  to  the  flower  and  fruit;  p.  76. 
Resupinate : inverted,  or  appearing  as  if  upside  down,  or  reversed. 

Reticulated:  the  veins  forming  network,  as  in  fig.  50,  83. 

Retroflexed : bent  backwards  ; same  as  reflexed. 

Retuse : blunted ; the  apex  not  only  obtuse,  but  somewhat  indented ; p.  60, 
fig.  107. 

Revolute ; rolled  backwards,  as  the  margins  of  many  leaves  ; p.  76. 

Rhachis  (the  backbone)  : the  axis  of  a spike,  or  other  body ; p.  78. 

Rhaphe : the  continuation  of  the  seed-stalk  along  the  side  of  an  anatropous  ovule 
(p.  123)  or  seed ; fig.  273,  r,  319  and  320,  b. 

Rhaphides : crystals,  especially  needle-shaped  ones,  in  the  tissues  of  plants. 
Rhizoma : a rootstock  ; p.  40,  fig.  64  - 67. 

Rhombic : in  the  shape  of  a rhomb.  Rhomboidal : approaching  that  shape. 

Rib : the  principal  piece,  or  one  of  the  principal  pieces,  of  the  framework  of  a 
leaf,  p.  55  ; or  any  similar  elevated  line  along  a body. 


GLOSSARY. 


229 


Ring : an  elastic  band  on  the  spore-cases  of  Ferns.  (Manual,  p.  587,  plate  9, 
fig.  2,  3.) 

Ringent : grinning;  gaping  open;  p.  102,  fig.  209. 

Rootf  p.  28. 

Root-hairs,  p.  31,  149. 

Rootlets : small  roots,  or  root-branches  ; p.  29. 

Rootstock : root-like  trunks  or  portions  of  stems  on  or  under  ground ; p.  40. 
Rosaceous : arranged  like  the  petals  of  a rose. 

Rostdlate:  bearing  a small  beak  (rostellum). 

Rdstrate : bearing  a beak  ( rostrum ) or  a prolonged  appendage. 

Rdsulate : in  a regular  cluster  of  spreading  leaves,  resembling  a full  or  double 
rose,  as  the  leaves  of  Houseleek,  &c. 

Rotate:  wheel-shaped  : p.  101,  fig.  204,  205. 

Rotund : rounded  or  roundish  in  outline. 

Rudimentary  : imperfectly  developed,  or  in  an  early  state  of  development. 

Rugose : wrinkled,  roughened  with  wrinkles. 

Ruminated  (albumen)  : penetrated  with  irregular  channels  or  portions  filled  with 
softer  matter,  as  a nutmeg. 

Runcinate : coarsely  saw-toothed  or  cut,  the  pointed  teeth  turned  towards  the 
base  of  the  leaf,  as  the  leaf  of  a Dandelion. 

Runner : a slender  and  prostrate  branch,  rooting  at  the  end,  or  at  the  joints,  as 
of  a Strawberry,  p.  38. 

Sac : any  closed  membrane,  or  a deep  purse-shaped  cavity. 

Sagittate : arrowhead-shaped  ; p.  59,  fig.  95. 

Salver -shaped,  or  Salver-form : with  a border  spreading  at  right  angles  to  a slen- 
der tube,  as  the  corolla  of  Phlox,  p.  101,  fig.  208,  202. 

Samara : a wing-fruit,  or  key,  as  of  Maple,  p.  5,  fig.  1,  Ash,  p.  131,  fig.  300,  and 
Elm,  fig.  301. 

Samaroid:  like  a samara  or  key-fruit. 

Sap:  the  juices  of  plants  generally.  Ascending  or  crude  sap;  p.  161,  168. 
Elaborated  sap,  that  which  has  been  digested  or  assimilated  by  the  plant ; 
p.  162,  169. 

Sarcocarp : the  fleshy  part  of  a stone-fruit,  p.  128. 

Sarmentaceous : bearing  long  and  flexible  twigs  ( sarments ),  either  spreading  or 
procumbent. 

Saw-toothed:  see  serrate. 

Scabrous:  rough  or  harsh  to  the  touch. 

Scalariform  : with  cross-bands,  resembling  the  steps  of  a ladder. 

Scales : of  buds,  p.  22,  50  ; of  bulbs,  &c.,  p.  40,  46,  50. 

Scaly : furnished  with  scales,  or  scale-like  in  texture ; p.*46,  &c. 

Scandent : climbing  ; p.  37. 

Scape : a peduncle  rising  from  the  ground,  or  near  it,  as  of  the  stemless  Violets, 
the  Bloodroot,  &c. 

Scapiform:  scape-like. 

Scar  of  the  seed,  p.  135.  Leaf-scars,  p.  21. 

Scarious  or  Scariose : thin,  dry,  and  membranous. 

Scdbiform : resembling  sawdust. 

20 


230 


GLOSSARY. 


Scorpioid  or  Scorpioidal : curved  or  circinate  at  the  end,  like  the  tail  of  a scor- 
pion, as  the  inflorescence  of  Heliotrope. 

Scrobiculate : pitted ; excavated  into  shallow  pits. 

Scurf,  Scurf  ness  : minute  scales  on  the  surface  of  many  leaves,  as  of  Goosefoot, 
Buffalo-berry,  &c. 

Scutate : buckler-shaped. 

Scute'llate,  or  Scutdliform : saucer-shaped  or  platter-shaped. 

Secund : one-sided ; i.  e.  where  flowers,  leaves,  &c.  are  all  turned  to  one  side. 
Secundine : the  inner  coat  of  the  ovule ; p.  124. 

Seed,  p.  134.  Seed-coats,  p.  134.  Seed-vessel,  p.  127. 

Segment : a subdivision  or  lobe  of  any  cleft  body. 

Segregate : separated  from  each  other. 

Semi-  (in  compound  words  of  Latin  origin)  : half;  as 

Semi-adherent,  as  the  calyx  or  ovary  of  Purslane,  fig.  214.  Semicordate:  half- 
heart-shaped. Semilunar:  like  a half-moon.  Semiovate : half-ovate,  &c. 
Seminal : relating  to  the  seed.  Seminiferous : seed-bearing. 

Sempervirent : evergreen. 

Sepal : a leaf  or  division  of  the  calyx  ; p.  85. 

Sepaloid : sepal-like.  Sepaline : relating  to  the  sepals. 

Separated  Flowers:  those  having  stamens  or  pistils  only;  p.  89. 

Septate:  divided  by  partitions  [septa). 

Septenate : with  parts  in  sevens. 

Septicidal : where  a pod  in  dehiscence  splits  through  the  partitions,  dividing 
each  into  two  layers  ; p.  132,  fig.  306. 

Septiferous : bearing  the  partition. 

SepUfragal : where  the  valves  of  a pod  in  dehiscence  break  away  from  the  par- 
titions ; p.  132. 

Septum  (plural  septa)  : a partition,  as  of  a pod,  &c. 

Serial,  or  Seriate : in  rows ; as  biserial,  in  two  rows,  &c. 

Sericeous : silky  ; clothed  with  satiny  pubescence. 

Serdtinous : happening  late  in  the  season. 

Serrate,  or  Serrated:  the  margin  cut  into  teeth  ( serratures ) pointing  forwards; 
p.  61,  fig.  112. 

Serrulate : same  as  the  last,  but  with  fine  teeth. 

Sessile : sitting ; without  any  stalk,  as  a leaf  destitute  of  petiole,  or  an  anther 
destitute  of  filament. 

Seta : a bristle,  or  a slender  body  or  appendage  resembling  a bristle. 

Setaceous  : bristle-like.  Setiform  : bristle-shaped. 

Setigerous : bearing  bristles.  Setose:  beset  with  bristles  or  bristly  hairs. 

Sex:  six;  in  composition.  Sexangular : six-angled,  &c.. 

Sheath  : the  base  of  such  leaves  as  those  of  Grasses,  which  are 
Sheathing : wrapped  round  the  stem. 

Shield-shaped : same  as  scutate,  or  as  peltate , p.  59. 

Shrub,  p.  21. 

Sigmoid : curved  in  two  directions,  like  the  letter  S,  or  the  Greek  sigma. 
Siliculose : bearing  a silicle,  or  a fruit  resembling  it. 

Silicle:  a pouch,  or  short  pod  of  the  Cress  Family ; p.  133. 

Silique:  a longer  pod  of  the  Cress  Family  ; p.  133,  fig.  310. 


GLOSSARY. 


231 


Siliquose : bearing  siliques  or  pods  which  resemble  siliques. 

Silky : glossy  with  a coat  of  fine  and  soft,  close-pressed,  straight  hairs. 
Silver-grain  of  wood;  p.  151. 

Silvery : shining  white  or  bluish-gray,  usually  from  a silky  pubescence. 

Simple : of  one  piece  ; opposed  to  compound. 

Sinistrorse : turned  to  the  left. 

Sinuate : strongly  wavy ; with  the  margin  alternately  bowed  inwards  and  out- 
wards; p.  62,  fig.  116. 

Sinus : a recess  or  bay ; the  re-entering  angle  or  space  between  two  lobes  or  pro- 
jections. 

Sleep  of  Plants  (so  called),  p.  170. 

Soboliferous : bearing  shoots  from  near  the  ground. 

Solitary : single ; not  associated  with  others. 

Soi'us  (plural  sori) : the  proper  name  of  a fruit-dot  of  Ferns. 

Spadix:  a fleshy  spike  of  flowers  ; p.  80,  fig.  162. 

Spathaceous : resembling  or  furnished  with  a 

Spathe:  a bract  which  inwraps  an  inflorescence;  p.  80,  fig.  162. 

Spatulate,  or  Spathulate:  shaped  like  a spatula;  p.  58,  fig.  92. 

Special  Movements,  p.  170. 

Species,  p.  173. 

Specific  Character,  p.  181.  Specific  Names,  p.  179. 

Spicate : belonging  to  or  disposed  in  a spike. 

Spiciform : in  shape  resembling  a spike. 

Spike : an  inflorescence  like  a raceme,  only  the  flowers  are  sessile ; p.  80,  fig.  160. 
Spikelet : a small  or  a secondary  spike ; the  inflorescence  of  Grasses. 

Spine:  a thorn;  p.  39. 

Spindle-shaped ; tapering  to  each  end,  like  a radish  ; p.  31,  fig.  59. 

Spinescent : tipped  by  or  degenerating  into  a thorn. 

Spinose,  or  Spiniferous : thorny. 

Spiral  arrangement  of  leaves,  p.  72.  Spiral  vessels  or  ducts,  p.  148. 

Sporangia , or  Spdrocarps : spore-cases  of  Ferns,  Mosses,  &c. 

Spore : a body  resulting  from  the  fructification  of  Cryptogamous  plants,  in  them 
taking  the  place  of  a seed. 

Spdrule : same  as  a spore,  or  a small  spore. 

Spur : any  projecting  appendage  of  the  flower,  looking  like  a spur,  as  that  of 
Larkspur,  fig.  183. 

Squamate,  Squamose,  or  Squamaceous:  furnished  with  scales  ( squamae ). 
Squamellate  or  Squamulose:  furnished  with  little  scales  ( squamellce  or  squamulce). 
Squdmiform : shaped  like  a scale. 

Squarrose : where  scales,  leaves,  or  any  appendages,  are  spreading  widely  from 
the  axis  on  which  they  are  thickly  set. 

Squarrulose : diminutive  of  squarrose ; slightly  squarrose. 

Stalk : the  stem,  petiole,  peduncle,  &c.,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Stamen,  p.  86,  111. 

Staminate:  furnished  with  stamens ; p.  89.  Stamineal:  relating  to  the  stamens. 
Staminddium : an  abortive  stamen,  or  other  body  resembling  a sterile  stamen. 
Standard:  the  upper  petal  of  a papilionaceous  corolla;  p.  105,  fig.  217,  218,  s. 
Starch:  a well-known  vegetable  product ; p.  163. 


232 


GLOSSARY. 


Station : the  particular  place,  or  kind  of  situation,  in  which  a plant  naturally 
occurs. 

Stdlate,  Stellular:  starry  or  star-like;  where  several  similar  parts  spread  out 
from  a common  centre,  like  a star. 

Stem,  p.  36,  &c. 

Stemless : destitute  or  apparently  destitute  of  stem. 

Sterile : barren  or  imperfect ; p.  89. 

Stigma : the  part  of  the  pistil  which  receives  the  pollen ; p.  87. 

Stigmatic,  or  Stigmatose : belonging  to  the  stigma. 

Stipe  (Latin  stipes) ; the  stalk  of  a pistil,  &c.,  when  it  has  any ; the  stem  of  a 
Mushroom. 

Stipel : a stipule  of  a leaflet,  as  of  the  Bean,  &c. 

Stipellate:  furnished  with  stipels,  as  the  Bean  and  some  other  Leguminous 
plants. 

Stipitate:  furnished  with  a stipe,  as  the  pistil  of  Cleome,  fig.  276. 

Stipulate : furnished  with  stipules. 

Stipules:  the  appendages  one  each  side  of  the  base  of  certain  leaves;  p.  69. 
Stolons:  trailing  or  reclined  and  rooting  shoots ; p.  37. 

Stoloniferous : producing  stolons. 

Stomate  (Latin  stoma , plural  stomata) : the  breathing-pores  of  leaves,  &c. ; p.  156. 
Strap-shaped:  long,  flat,  and  narrow;  p.  106. 

Striate,  or  Striated:  marked  with  slender  longitudinal  grooves  or  channels 
(Latin  strice). 

Strict : close  and  narrow ; straight  and  narrow. 

Strigillose,  Strigose : beset  with  stout  and  appressed,  scale-like  or  rigid  bristles. 
Strobilaceous : relating  to,  or  resembling  a 

Strdbile : a multiple  fruit  in  the  form  of  a cone  or  head,  as  that  of  the  Hop  and 
of  the  Pine ; fig.  314,  p.  133. 

Strophiole : same  as  caruncle.  Strophiolate : furnished  with  a strophiole. 

Struma : a wen  ; a swelling  or  protuberance  of  any  organ. 

Style : a part  of  the  pistil  which  bears  the  stigma  ; p.  86. 

Stylopodium : an  epigynous  disk,  or  an  enlargement  at  the  base  of  the  style, 
found  in  Umbelliferous  and  some  other  plants. 

Sub-,  as  a prefix : about,  nearly,  somewhat ; as  subcordate,  slightly  cordate : sub- 
serrate,  slightly  serrate  : subaxillary,  just  beneath  the  axil,  &c.,  &c. 

Suberose : corky  or  cork-like  in  texture. 

Subclass,  p.  177,  183.  Suborder,  p.  176.  Subtribe,  p.  177. 

Subulate : awl-shaped ; tapering  from  a broadish  or  thickish  base  to  a sharp 
point ; p.  68. 

Succulent:  juicy  or  pulpy. 

Suckers:  shoots  from  subterranean  branches;  p.  37. 

Suffrutescent : slightly  shrubby  or  woody  at  the  base  only ; p.  36. 

Sugar,  p.  163. 

Sulcate:  grooved  longitudinally  with  deep  furrows. 

Supernumerary  Buds:  p.  26. 

Supe'rvolute : plaited  and  convolute  in  bud ; p.  110,  fig.  225. 

Supra-axillary : borne  above  the  axil,  as  some  buds ; p.  26,  fig.  52 
Supra-decompound : many  times  compounded  or  divided. 


GLOSSARY. 


233 


Surculose : producing  suckers,  or  shoots  resembling  them. 

Suspended:  hanging  down.  Suspended  ovules  or  seeds  hang  from  the  very 
summit  of  the  cell  which  contains  them ; p.  122,  fig.  269. 

Sutural:  belonging  or  relating  to  a suture. 

Suture:  the  line  of  junction  of  contiguous  parts  grown  together ; p.  117. 
Sword-shaped:  vertical  leaves  with  acute  parallel  edges,  tapering  above  to  a 
point ; as  those  of  Iris,  fig.  133. 

Symmetrical  Flower:  similar  in  the  number  of  parts  of  each  set;  p.  89. 
Synantherous,  or  Syngenesious:  where  stamens  are  united  by  their  anthers ; p.  1 1 2, 
fig.  229. 

Syncarpous  (fruit  or  pistil) : composed  of  several  carpels  consolidated  into  one. 
System,  p.  195. 

Systematic  Botany : the  study  of  plants  after  their  kinds ; p.  3. 

Taper-pointed:  same  as  acuminate ; p.  60,  fig.  103. 

Tap-root : a root  with  a stout  tapering  body ; p.  32. 

Tawny : dull  yellowish,  with  a tinge  of  brown. 

Taxdnomy : the  part  of  Botany  which  treats  of  classification. 

Tegmen : a name  for  the  inner  seed-coat. 

Tendril:  a thread-shaped  body  used  for  climbing,  p.  38:  it  is  either  a branch, 
as  in  Virginia  Creeper,  fig.  62 ; or  a part  of  a leaf,  as  in  Pea  and  Vetch, 
fig.  127. 

Terete : long  and  round ; same  as  cylindrical,  only  it  may  taper. 

Terminal : borne  at,  or  belonging  to,  the  extremity  or  summit. 

Terminology : the  part  of  the  science  which  treats  of  technical  terms ; same  as 
glossology. 

Ternate : in  threes ; p.  66.  Ternately : in  a ternate  way. 

Testa:  the  outer  (and  usually  the  harder)  coat  or  shell  of  the  seed;  p.  134. 

Tetra-  (in  words  of  Greek  composition) : four;  as, 

Tetracdccous : of  four  cocci  or  carpels. 

Tetradynamous : where  a flower  has  six  stamens,  two  of  them  shorter  than  the 
other  four,  as  in  Mustard,  p.  92,  112,  fig.  188. 

Tetragonal:  four-angled.  Tetragynous:  with  four  pistils  or  styles ; p.  116. 
Tetramerous : with  its  parts  or  sets  in  fours. 

Tetrandrous:  with  four  stamens ; p.  112. 

Theca:  a case ; the  cells  or  lobes  of  the  anther. 

Thorn:  see  spine;  p.  39. 

Thread-shaped:  slender  and  round,  or  roundish  like  a thread ; as  the  filament  of 
stamens  generally. 

Throat : the  opening  or  gorge  of  a monopetalous  corolla,  &c.,  where  the  border 
and  the  tube  join,  and  a little  below. 

Thyrse  or  Thyrsus : a compact  and  pyramidal  panicle ; p.  81. 

Tomentose : clothed  with  matted  woolly  hairs  ( tomentum ). 

Tongue-shaped:  long,  flat,  but  thickish,  and  blunt. 

Toothed:  furnished  with  teeth  or  short  projections  of  any  sort  on  the  margin; 
used  especially  when  these  are  sharp,  like  saw-teeth,  and  do  not  point  for- 
wards ; p.  61,  fig.  113. 

Top-shaped:  shaped  like  a top,  or  a Gone  with  its  apex  downwards. 

20  * 


234 


GLOSSARY. 


Tdrose,  Tdrulose : knobby ; where  a cylindrical  body  is  swollen  at  intervals. 
Torus:  the  receptacle  of  the  flower;  p.  86,  124. 

Tree,  p.  21. 

Tri-,  in  composition  : three ; as 

Triadelphous : stamens  united  by  their  filaments  into  three  bundles;  p.  112. 
Triandrous : where  the  flower  has  three  stamens  ; p.  112. 

Tribe,  p.  176. 

Trichotomous  : three-forked.  Tricdccous : of  three  cocci  or  roundish  carpels. 
Tricolor:  having  three  colors.  Tricdstate:  having  three  ribs. 

Tricuspidate : three-pointed.  Tride'ntate : three-toothed. 

Triennial : lasting  for  three  years. 

Trifarious : in  three  vertical  rows  ; looking  three  ways. 

Trifid:  three-cleft ; p.  62. 

Trif dilate:  three-leaved.  Trifdliolate : of  three  leaflets  ; p.  66. 

Trifurcate : three-forked.  Trigonous : three-angled,  or  triangular. 

Trigynous:  with  three  pistils  or  styles  ; p.  116.  Trijugate:  in  three  pairs  [jugi)- 
Trildbed,  or  Trilobate : three-lobed ; p.  62. 

Trildcular:  three-celled,  as  the  pistils  or  pods  in  fig.  225-227. 

Trimerous:  with  its  parts  in  threes,  as  Trillium,  fig.  189. 

Trinervate : three-nerved,  or  with  three  slender  ribs. 

Tricecious : where  there  are  three  sorts  of  flowers  on  the  same  or  different  indi- 
viduals ; as  in  Red  Maple. 

Tripartible : separable  into  three  pieces.  Tripartite : three-parted ; p.  62. 
Tripetalous : having  three  petals  ; as  in  fig.  189. 

Triphyllous : three-leaved ; composed  of  three  pieces. 

Tripinnate:  thrice  pinnate  ; p.  66.  Tripinnatifid : thrice  pinnately  cleft ; p.  64. 
Triple-ribbed,  Triple-nerved,  &c. : where  a midrib  branches  into  three  near  the 
base  of  the  leaf,  as  in  Sunflower. 

Triquetrous : sharply  three-angled  ; and  especially  with  the  sides  concave,  like  a 
bayonet. 

Triserial,  or  Triseriate : in  three  rows,  under  each  other. 

Tristichous : in  three  longitudinal  or  perpendicular  ranks. 

Tristigmatic,  or  Tristigmatose : having  three  stigmas. 

Trisulcate : three-grooved. 

Triternate:  three  times  ternate  ; p.  67. 

Trivial  Name : the  specific  name. 

Trochlear : pulley-shaped. 

Trumpet-shaped:  tubular,  enlarged  at  or  towards  the  summit,  as  the  corolla  of 
Trumpet-Creeper. 

Truncate  : as  if  cut  off  at  the  top  ; p.  60,  fig.  106. 

Tube,  p.  102. 

Trunk : the  main  stem  or  general  body  of  a stem  or  tree. 

Tuber : a thickened  portion  of  a subterranean  stem  or  branch,  provided  with  eyes 
(buds)  on  the  sides ; as  a potato,  p.  43,  fig.  68. 

Tubercle : a small  excrescence. 

Tubercled,  or  Tuberculate : bearing  excrescences  or  pimples. 

Tuberous : resembling  a tuber.  Tuberiferous : bearing  tubers. 

Tubular : hollow  and  of  an  elongated  form ; hollowed  like  a pipe. 


GLOSSARY. 


235 


Tumid : swollen ; somewhat  inflated. 

Tunicate : coated  ; invested  with  layers,  as  an  onion  ; p.  4G. 

Turbinate : top-shaped.  Turgid:  thick  as  if  swollen. 

Turio  (plural  turiones) : young  shoots  or  suckers  springing  out  of  the  ground ; as 
Asp  aragus-sho  o ts . 

Turnip-shaped:  broader  than  high,  and  abruptly  narrowed  below;  p.  32,  fig.  57. 

Twin:  in  pairs  (see geminate) , as  the  flowers  of  Linnsea 

Twining : ascending  by  coiling  round  a support,  like  the  Hop  ; p.  37. 

Typical : well  expressing  the  characteristics  of  a species,  genus,  &c. 

Umbel:  the  umbrella-like  form  of  inflorescence  ; p.  79,  fig.  159. 

Umbellate : in  umbels.  Umbelliferous : bearing  umbels. 

Umbellet : a secondary  or  partial  umbel ; p.  81. 

Umbilicate : depressed  in  the  centre,  like  the  ends  of  an  apple. 

Umbonate:  bossed  ; furnished  with  a low,  rounded  projection  like  a boss  (umbo)- 
Umbraculiform  ; umbrella-shaped,  like  a Mushroom,  or  the  top  of  the  style  of 
Sarracenia. 

Unarmed : destitute  of  spines,  prickles,  and  the  like. 

Uncinate : hook-shaped  ; hooked  over  at  the  end. 

Under-shrub : partially  shrubby,  or  a very  low  shrub. 

Undulate : wavy,  or  wavy-margined  ; p.  62. 

Unequally  pinnate : pinnate  with  an  odd  number  of  leaflets  ; p.  65. 

Unguiculate:  furnished  with  a claw  ( unguis ) ; p.  102,  i.  e.  a narrow  base,  as  the 
petals  of  a Rose,  where  the  claw  is  very  short,  and  those  of  Pinks  (fig.  200), 
where  the  claw  is  very  long. 

Uni-,  in  compound  words  : one  ; as 

Unifldrous : one-flowered.  Unifdliate:  one-leaved. 

Unifdliolate : of  one  leaflet;  p.  66.  Unijugate:  of  one  pair. 

Unilabiate:  one-lipped.  Unilateral:  one-sided. 

Unildcular:  one-celled,  as  the  pistil  in  fig.  261,  and  the  anther  in  fig.  238,  239. 
Uniovulate:  having  only  one  ovule,  as  in  fig.  213,  and  fig.  267-269. 

Uniserial : in  one  horizontal  row. 

Unisexual:  having  stamens  or  pistils  only,  as  in  Moonseed,  fig.  176,  177,  &c. 
Univalved:  a pod  of  only  one  piece  after  dehiscence,  as  fig.  253. 

Urceolate : urn-shaped. 

Utricle:  a small,  thin-walled,  one-seeded  fruit,  as  of  Goosefoot ; p.  130,  fig.  350. 
Utricular : like  a small  bladder. 

Vaginate:  sheathed,  surrounded  by  a sheath  (vagina). 

Valve : one  of  the  pieces  (or  doors)  into  which  a dehiscent  pod,  or  any  similar 
body,  splits  ; p.  131,  114. 

Valvate,  Valvular:  opening  by  valves.  Valvate  in  aestivation,  p.  109. 

Variety,  p.  174,  177. 

Vascular : containing  vessels,  or  consisting  of  vessels,  such  as  ducts ; p.  146,  148. 
Vaulted : arched  ; same  as  fornicate. 

Vegetable  Physiology,  p.  3. 

Veil : the  calyptra  of  Mosses.  (Manual,  p.  607  ) 

Veins : the  small  ribs  or  branches  of  the  framework  of  leaves,  &c. ; p.  55. 


236 


GLOSSARY. 


Veined,  Veiny:  furnished  with  evident  veins.  Veinless:  destitute  of  veins. 
Veinlets : the  smaller  ramifications  of  veins. 

Velate : furnished  with  a veil. 

Velutinous  : velvety  to  the  touch. 

Venation:  the  veining  of  leaves,  &c..;  p.  55. 

Venose : veiny  ; furnished  with  conspicuous  veins. 

Ventral:  belonging  to  that  side  of  a simple  pistil,  or  other  organ,  which  looks 
towards  the  axis  or  centre  of  the  flower ; the  opposite  of  dorsal ; as  the 
Ventral  Suture,  p.  117. 

Ventricose : inflated  or  swelled  out  on  one  side. 

Venulose : furnished  with  veinlets. 

Vermicular : shaded  like  worms. 

Vernation:  the  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  the  bud ; p.  75. 

Vernicose : the  surface  appearing  as  if  varnished. 

Verrucose : warty  ; beset  with  little  projections  like  warts. 

Versatile : attached  by  one  point,  so  that  it  may  swing  to  and  fro,  as  the  anthers 
of  the  Lily  and  Evening  Primrose ; p.  113,  fig.  234. 

Vertex : same  as  the  apex. 

Vertical : upright ; perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  lengthwise. 

Verticil:  a whorl ; p.  71.  Verticillate : whorled;  p.  71,  75,  fig.  148. 

Vesicle:  a little  bladder.  Embryonal  Vesicle,  p.  139.  Vesicular:  bladdery. 
Vessels:  ducts,  &c. ; p.  146,  148. 

Vex  diary,  Vexillar : relating  to  the 

Vexillum:  the  standard  of  a papilionaceous  flower;  p.  105,  fig.  218,  s. 

Villose:  shaggy  with  long  and  soft  hairs  (villosity.) 

Vimmeous:  producing  slender  twigs,  such  as  those  used  for  wicker-work. 

Vine : any  trailing  or  climbing  stem ; as  a Grape-vine. 

Virescent,  Viridescent:  greenish;  turning  green. 

Virgate : wand-shaped,  as  a long,  straight,  and  slender  twig. 

Viscous,  Viscid:  having  a glutinous  surface. 

Vitta  (plural  vittce) : the  oil-tubes  of  the  fruit  of  Umbelliferse. 

Vdluble:  twining,  as  the  stem  of  Hops  and  Beans ; p.  37. 

Wavy : the  surface  or  margin  alternately  convex  and  concave ; p.  62. 

Waxy : resembling  beeswax  in  texture  or  appearance. 

Wedge-shaped:  broad  above,  and  tapering  by  straight  lines  to  a narrow  base ; 
p.  58,  fig.  94. 

Wheel-shaped:  see  rotate;  p.  102,  fig.  204,  205. 

Whorl,  Whorled:  when  leaves,  &c.  are  arranged  in  a circle  round  the  stem, 
p.  71,  75,  fig.  148. 

Wing : any  membranous  expansion.  Wings  of  papilionaceous  flowers,  p.  105. 
Winged:  furnished  with  a wing;  as  the  fruit  of  Ash  and  Elm,  fig.  300,  301. 
Wood,  p.  145.  Woody:  of  the  texture  or  consisting  of  wood. 

Woody  Fibre,  or  Wood-Cells,  p.  146. 

Woolly : clothed  with  long  and.  entangled  soft  hairs ; as  the  leaves  of  Mullein. 


THE  END. 


